Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications as Predictors of Academic Achievements in Literacy and Numeracy among Preschoolers in Ibadan North, Oyo State

Evelyn Aisha AKPA
LCU/PG/002969

Being a M.Ed Thesis Submitted to the Department of Arts and Social Science Education, Faculty of Education, Lead City University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Award of Master Degree (M.Ed) in Early Childhood Education

2023
Certification

This is to certify that this study titled “Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications as Predictors of Academic Achievements in Literacy and Numeracy among Preschoolers in Ibadan North, Oyo State” was carried out by Evelyn Aisha AKPA with matriculation number LCU/PG/002969 under my supervisor in the Department of Arts and Social Science Education, Faculty of Education, Lead City University, Ibadan, Oyo State, Nigeria and that this work has not been previously submitted.

_______________________					_____________________
Dr. M. Mojirade Ayantunji						     Date
Supervisor

________________________				______________________
Dr. Oluyomi Susan Pitan						     Date
Head of Department

Dedication
This research work is dedicated to God Almighty, my husband and children.

Acknowledgement
I wholeheartedly appreciate the management of Lead City University, Ibadan, which allowed me to study at this renowned Institution. I thank them for providing a healthy environment for all students as well as encouraging creativity, interaction and participation in academic activities. Also, my appreciation goes to all the staff of Lead City University Library and University of Ibadan Library for helping me with adequate materials and information needed for the study. God will continue to broaden their knowledge. 
I deeply appreciate my supervisor and mentor; Dr. M. Mojirade Ayantunji for her support, critical evaluation, contributions and encouragement throughout the period of this research work. I appreciate the Head of Department, Dr. Oluyomi Susan Pitan for her headship and support. Also, I appreciate the former Head of Department Prof. Senimetu Ileuma for her mentorship, support and role in the Department. I also want to appreciate all the Professors in the Department: Donald Odeleye, Afolakemi Oredein, Tunde Yara, Ukamaka Akuche, Toyin Oyedeji, I say a big thank you to them all. To all the Drs. in the Department: Sabina Obi, Olabisi Killian, Adeyemi Ebo, Monilola Oyetade, Christianah Sam-Kayode, Seyi David, Omobola Gambo, Deborah Ayeni, Yejide Ibikunle, Moyosore Beckeley, and Dolapo Awoniyi. I remain grateful to them all for their teachings and support throughout my academic programme at Lead City University, Ibadan. Also, I am grateful to the administrative officers, Flora Akinyoola and Kehinde Oladeji. I wish them all immense wealth, great happiness, and good health to enjoy the fruits of their labour. 
In addition, I thank my husband, Dr. Onoja Matthew Akpa for the love, financial and emotional support I received from him all through the period of my programme. God bless him. I appreciate my children Mr. Faithful Onoja, Mr. Gift Onoja and Miss. Precious Onoja, they are more than a million. In their little and funny way, they gave their quota to the success of my programme for their supports throughout the period of my study. I also Thank Mr. Osahon Jeffery Asowata and Mr. Innocent Okoro who assisted me during the data collection and analysis.
Even though the above-mentioned institutions and persons have assisted in the process of this research work, I alone stand responsible for the errors, if any, found in the work.

	

Abstract
This study investigated teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications as predictors of academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers in Ibadan North LG, Oyo state. The descriptive survey research design of the ex-post facto was adopted. The sample were three hundred and ninety five (395) preschoolers and forty eight (48) preschool teachers. Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications Questionnaire (TAPQQ) gave r value of .808; KR21 gave a value of .765 for the Literacy and Numeracy Achievement Test (LNAT). The findings showed the overall attitude score in private schools, that 70.0% of teachers had a poor attitude, while 30.0% had a good attitude; while in public preschools (83.3%) was poor; while 16.7% was good. Most public preschool teachers (77.8%) had experience of 21 years and above; while only 10.0% of the private preschool teachers had same years of experience. The teachers in both public and private preschools had engaged in continual professional development of which 83.3% were from private schools and 72.2% were from public schools (P>0.05). Literacy (B = 1.89 with a p-value <0.001) shows the joint prediction of teachers’ attitude was significant at p<0.01; B = -0.74 with a p-value=0.22 indicated the joint prediction of professional qualification was not significant at P<0.01. Numeracy (B = 1.19 with a p-value <0.001) indicated the joint prediction of teachers’ attitude was significant at p<0.01; while B = -0.17 with a p-value=0.76 indicated the joint prediction of professional qualification was not significant at P<0.01. Based on the above, it was recommended that local educational authorities should implement policies aimed at equalising access to resources and educational opportunities; teachers’ training and professional development programmes that focus on building positive attitudes should be promoted. In conclusion, there is need to address the issue of disparities in teaching between private and public schools.

Keywords: Teachers’ Attitude, Teachers’ Professional Qualifications, Academic Achievement, Literacy and Numeracy, Preschoolers 

Word Count: 297

Table of Contents
Content										Page
Title Page										i
Certification 										ii
Dedication										iii
Acknowledgement									iv
Abstract										vi
Table of Contents									vii
List of Tables										x
List of Figures										xi
Chapter One: Introduction								1
1.1	Background to the Study							1
1.2	Statement of the Problem							6
1.3	Aim and Objectives of the Study						7
1.4	Research Questions								8
1.5	Hypotheses									8
1.6	Significance of the Study							9
1.7	Scope of the Study								10
1.8	Limitation to the Study							11
1.9	Operational Definition of Terms						11
Endnotes 										14
Chapter Two: Literature Review							16 	
2.1	Conceptual Review								17
2.1.1	Concept of Preschool and Early Childhood Education			17
2.1.2	Concept of Academic achievement 						18
2.1.3	Factors Affecting Students’ Academic Achievement				23
2.1.4	Concept of Academic achievement in Preschool 				28
2.1.5	Academic Achievement in Literacy 				29
2.1.6	Academic Achievement in Numeracy 					31
2.1.7	Concept of Teacher								32
2.1.8	Concept of Teachers’ Attitude						35
2.1.9	Teachers’ Professional Qualifications					39
2.2	Theoretical Review								44
2.2.1	The Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)						44
2.2.2 	Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory 						46
2.2.3	Walberg’s Theory of Educational Productivity				47
2.3	Review of Empirical Studies 							50
2.3.1	Teachers’ Attitude and Academic Achievements				50
2.3.2 	Professional Qualifications and Academic Achievement  			74
2.4	Conceptual Model								90
2.5	Summary of Literature Reviewed 						91
Endnotes										95
Chapter Three: Methodology							105
3.1	Research Design								105
3.2	Population of the Study							105
3.3	Sample and Sampling Techniques						105
3.4	Research Instruments								106
3.4.1 	Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications Questionnaire 
(TAPQQ)									106

3.4.2	Literacy and Numeracy Achievement Test (LNAT)				107
3.5	Validity of the Instruments							107
3.6	Reliability of Research Instruments						107
3.7	Administration of Research Instrument and Method of Data Collection	108
3.8	Method of Data Analysis							108
Chapter Four: Results and Discussions of Findings				110
4.1	Instrument Response Rate							110
4.2	Presentation of Data								113
4.2.1 	Analysis of Demographic Data						113
4.2 	Presentation of Analysis of Research Questions				114
4.3	Test of Hypotheses 								120
4.4 	Discussion of Findings							130 Endnotes										136 Chapter Five: Conclusion								138
5.1	Summary of Findings								138
5.2	Conclusion									142
5.3	Recommendations								143	
5.4	Contribution to Knowledge 							145
5.5	Suggested Areas for Further Studies						146
Bibliography										148
Appendices										158
Appendix A										158
Appendix B										162
Appendix C										164
Appendix D										165
Bio-data										166
University Compliance Certification						168

List of Tables
Table		Title									Page
4.1		Instrument Response Rate						110

4.2a		Distribution of Teachers’ Demographic Characteristics 
Stratified by School-type 						113	

4.2b		Distribution of Demographic Characteristics of Preschoolers	114

4.3 		Level of Academic Performance in Literacy and 
Numeracy among Preschoolers 					115

4.4		Level of Teachers' Attitude on the Teaching of Literacy 
Language and   Numeracy among Preschoolers			117

4.5		Professional Qualifications of Preschool Teachers for 
Literacy and Numeracy					119

4.6		Joint Prediction of Teachers’ Attitude and Professional 
Qualifications on Preschoolers Academic Achievement in 
Literacy and Numeracy					121

4.7		Relative Prediction of Teachers’ Attitude and Professional 
Qualifications on Preschoolers’ Academic Achievements in 
Literacy and Numeracy					124

4.8	School-type Difference in Teachers’ Attitude and Professional 
Qualifications on Preschoolers’ Academic Achievements in 
Literacy and Numeracy					128

List of Figure
Figure				Title						         Page
2.1 		Conceptual Model on Teachers’ Attitude and Professional 
Qualifications as Predictors of Academic Achievement 
in Literacy and Numeracy					90

Chapter One
Introduction

1.1	 Background to the Study
Preschool plays a crucial role in the development of young children's cognitive and academic skills. It sets the foundation for future learning and achievement. In Nigeria, preschool is gaining increasing attention as policymakers recognise the importance of quality education in the early years1. 
The curriculum framework for preschool education in Nigeria is guided by the National Policy on Education2. The policy emphasises the importance of providing a solid foundation for young learners through age-appropriate and culturally relevant instructional approaches. Ensuring quality early childhood education is crucial for children's holistic development and future success. Also, the Effective Provision of Preschool Education (EPPE) Project conducted in the United Kingdom highlighted the importance of high-quality early childhood education in improving children's cognitive and social outcomes3.
Literacy and Numeracy are fundamental subjects in early childhood education that lay the foundation for future academic success. Proficiency in these subjects is essential for effective communication, problem-solving, and cognitive development3. Early academic achievement in these subjects may be a strong predictor of future academic success and socio-economic outcomes. Research has consistently demonstrated the long-term benefits of high-quality early childhood education in promoting children's educational attainment and reducing educational disparities4.
Academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy refers to the level of success and competence demonstrated by preschoolers in these specific subjects. In particular, academic achievement in Literacy encompasses a child's ability to effectively comprehend, communicate, and apply language skills, including reading, writing, and verbal expression or reasoning. Strong academic achievement in Literacy is crucial for preschoolers as it lays the foundation for their language development, literacy, and future academic success. 
Similarly, academic achievement in Numeracy focuses on a preschooler's ability to understand, apply, and solve mathematical concepts and problems. Proficiency in Numeracy involves skills such as counting, basic addition, subtraction, and simple problem-solving. Satisfactory academic achievement in Numeracy is essential as it indicates a child's readiness for formal education and lays the groundwork for future mathematical learning and cognitive development in children. 
Unfortunately, many preschoolers perform poorly in Literacy and Numeracy in the recent past5, 6. The poor achievement has been demonstrated in the inability of many preschoolers to express themselves in Literacy, missing spelling of simple words and so on, while poor achievement in Numeracy manifest in the inability of preschoolers to independently perform addition and subtraction of numbers (appropriate for preschool age), as well as solving simple Numeracy problems. A deep reflection on the situations of the poor achievement in Literacy and Numeracy shows that a number of factors could be responsible for the suboptimal achievement in these subjects5. For example, inadequate learning and teaching resources, and materials might be limiting the effectiveness of the teaching and learning process. Some preschoolers or their schools may lack access to up-to-date or relevant textbooks, educational tools, and teaching aids, hindering teachers' ability to deliver comprehensive and engaging lessons. The absence of modern teaching technologies and educational infrastructure could also contribute to the pupils' difficulty in grasping essential concepts and developing essential skills in Literacy and Numeracy.
Also, socio-economic factors could also play a significant role in the poor academic achievement of preschoolers. Low-income households may face challenges in providing the necessary support and resources for their children's education. Limited access to educational resources at home, including books and learning materials, may negatively impact the pupils' academic achievement. Moreover, socio-economic constraints could result in a lack of access to quality early childhood education programmes, depriving preschoolers of a conducive learning environment and academic support.
Furthermore, the lack of qualified and skilled teachers may be another contributing factor to the poor academic achievement of preschoolers. Inadequate teacher’s training and professional qualifications in the subjects could result in poor teaching methods and limited subject knowledge among educators leading to poor achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers. Teachers who do not have a solid understanding of the subject matter may struggle to effectively convey information to their pupils, leading to a lack of comprehension and engagement in the classroom. Additionally, the absence of specialised early childhood education training for teachers may hinder their ability to cater to the unique needs of preschoolers, affecting their academic progress in Literacy and Numeracy.
Teachers' attitudes encompass the beliefs, values, and perceptions about teachers’ role as educators. Also, teachers’ attitudes shape their instructional practices, classroom climate, and interactions with students, ultimately impacting academic achievement. While professional qualifications reflect the level of formal education, training, and expertise in early childhood education (ECE). Several studies have explored the association between teachers' attitudes, professional qualifications, and student outcomes, emphasising the importance of investigating this relationship within the context of Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo State, Nigeria5. 
Teachers' attitudes towards teaching have been found to influence classroom practices, student engagement, and academic performance. It can significantly affect the instructional strategies, practices and students' academic outcomes in general. Positive attitudes, enthusiasm, and a passion for teaching contribute to an engaging and supportive learning environment7. On the other hand, negative attitudes may hinder effective teaching and student motivation8. Research has indicated that teachers' attitudes towards teaching are multidimensional, encompassing aspects like motivation, job satisfaction, instructional strategies, and beliefs about student learning6, 9. The attitudes of preschool teachers towards teaching is essential for enhancing the quality of early childhood education and promoting academic achievement. Cultural factors may influence teachers' attitudes towards teaching and student learning. In Nigeria, cultural values, beliefs, and expectations may shape teachers' instructional practices and attitudes towards specific subjects10. 
Teachers’ attitude as to do with teachers-pupil relationships. This is the quality of relationships between teachers and students, the rapport, trust, and effective communication which can help students’ engagement, motivation and willingness to participate in Literacy and Numeracy activities11. Further, the instructional methods which is the use of interactive and hand-on activities, differentiated instruction and the incorporation of real-world examples to enhance learning. The attitude may be the beliefs and expectation of the teacher; that is, teachers’ beliefs in the abilities and potentials of the students11.
. 	The positive mindset that influences the teachers’ instructional strategies and support for pupil’s learning. The positive mindset is the extent to which teachers provide support and guidance to preschoolers in Literacy and Numeracy by providing clear instructions, offering assistance when needed and fostering a nurturing learning environment to the preschoolers11.
Professional qualifications, including educational degrees, certifications, and specialised training, are crucial indicators of teachers' expertise and competence in early childhood education. Well-qualified teachers are more likely to possess the knowledge, skills, and instructional strategies necessary to create engaging and developmentally appropriate learning environments for preschoolers. Professional qualifications encompass the level of formal education, training, and expertise in early childhood education. Research suggests that teachers with higher levels of professional qualifications are more likely to possess the knowledge and skills necessary to create stimulating learning environments that promote children's academic development12, 13. 
Continuous professional development is essential for teachers to enhance their skills, knowledge, and attitudes towards teaching. Research has shown that effective professional development programmes can positively influence teachers' instructional practices and student’s outcomes14. Numerous studies have established a positive correlation between teachers' professional qualifications and students’ achievement12. 
The attitudes of teachers towards teaching and their professional qualifications can provide valuable insights into the potential predictors of academic achievement among preschoolers13. However, there is limited research on the role of teachers' attitudes towards teaching and their professional qualifications in predicting academic achievement among preschoolers in Oyo state15.
Further, school type can have several effects on the literacy and numeracy of preschoolers. Private schools may have a greater exposure to different teaching methods and instructional materials that will help in teaching of literacy and numeracy. This may lead to a higher cognitive learning. In contrast, public schools may have limited exposure and instructional materials because it is government sponsored and most of the needed teaching aids may not be available. Although, the teachers may try to improvise such to aid teaching and learning, resulting in lower exposure cognitive retention. Teachers in public schools may face unique challenges such as limited access to resources, professional development opportunities, and exposure to diverse teaching aids in public schools compare to private schools. While teachers in private schools may have more access to diverse resources, which can enhance their teaching. Therefore, the school type whether private or public may significantly predict academic achievement in literacy and numeracy of pupils.     
Despite the fact that Nigeria has made significant efforts to enhance the quality of preschool education through policy initiatives and curriculum reforms, there is still a need to investigate the factors that contribute to the academic achievement of preschoolers. Therefore, this study will investigate teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications as predictors of academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state.

1.2	 Statement of the Problem
Many factors may be responsible for the poor academic achievement of Literacy and Numeracy at the level of preschool. Some of these factors could be the background of the pupil, culture, socio-economic status of the pupils’ parents, teachers, school type (private or public), attitude and professional qualifications. Despite the importance of teachers' attitudes and professional qualifications, limited research has explored on the combined impact on the academic achievement of preschoolers in Oyo state, especially in Ibadan North Local Government. 
Existing studies have primarily focused on individual factor without considering the potential interplay between teachers' attitudes towards teaching and their professional qualifications. Past studies were on “teachers attitude towards instructional material utilisation for effective teaching and learning of mathematics in lower basic schools”, “preschool teachers’ qualification and its relationship to pupils’ academic performance in Lagos state, Nigeria”, “the relationship between teacher’s qualifications and students achievement in early childhood education programmes” 11, 12, 16. Evidently, further studies are required to investigate the combined prediction of teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications. This study therefore, investigated teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications as predictors of academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state.

1.3	 Aim and Objectives of the Study
This study investigated teachers' attitudes and professional qualifications as predictors of academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state. The specific objectives of this study were to:
i.	ascertain the level of preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state;
ii.	identify the level of teachers’ attitude (teacher-student relationship, instructional methods and classroom climate) in the teaching of Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state;
iii.	identify the professional educational qualification that is, level of education; years of experience and continuing professional development qualifications of preschool teachers for Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government; 
iv.	examine the joint prediction of teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state; 
v.	determine the relative prediction of teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state; and
vi.	ascertain the school type difference in teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state.
1.4	 Research Questions 
The following research questions were answered in this study:
1.	What is the level of preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state?
2.	What is the level of teachers’ attitude (teacher-student relationship, instructional methods and Classroom climate) in the teaching of Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state?
3.	What is the professional qualifications (Educational qualification that is, level of education; years of experience and continuing professional development) of preschool teachers for Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government?

1.5	 Hypotheses 
The following research hypotheses for this study were tested at 0.05 level of significance:
H01: There will be no significant joint prediction of teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state. 
H02: There will be no significant relative prediction of teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state
H03: There will be no significant school type difference in teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state.

1.6	 Significance of the Study
The information and findings from this study would be of benefit to the pupils, teachers, preschools, parents, society and government. To the pupils this study would be of great benefit by helping to improve their academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy. The teachers would use the information provided from this study to address the teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications with which the teachers operates so that they are favourable to the teaching of the preschoolers. The information provided from this study would make preschool teachers aware of possessing positive attitude and professional qualifications needed to function very well when teaching the preschoolers. 
Also, when the findings of this study becomes utilised, the preschools would benefit in that preschool teachers would perform better which would result in the actualization of the goals of the school. It will help preschool owners to employ teachers with professional qualification to teach the preschoolers and those that have positive attitude to teach at the preschool level.
The government would use the findings from this study to ensure that a preschool teacher has the right professional qualification and positive attitude that can facilitate effective teaching of the preschoolers. Lastly, this study would be a point of reference and guide to researchers who intend to carry out further investigations in the area of early childhood education. 

1.7	 Scope of the Study
	This study was delimited to teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state. This study was further delimited to preschoolers that were five (5) years old. This study was also delimited to teachers teaching at the preschool level (teaching age 3-5). The geographical scope covered in this study was Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state. This was because Ibadan North Local Government is an elite area and has many preschools in Oyo state compare to other local governments in Oyo state. The preschool Institutions that were used for this study are the following:
Private Schools

i.	Hallelujah Model School, New Bodija, Ibadan;
ii.	Christ’s Chapel Foundation School, UCH, Ibadan;   
iii.	Francis ‘M’ School, Agbowo, Ibadan;
iv.	Grateful Oak Nursery and Primary School, Ashi, Bodija, Ibadan; and
v.	Vine Branch Church Children School, Yemetu, Ibadan. 

Public Schools
i.	Abadina Primary School, University of Ibadan, Ibadan;
ii.	 Saint Michael Primary School, Yemetu, Ibadan;
iii.	Methodist Primary School, Bodija, Ibadan; 
iv.	Community Primary School, Ikolaba, Ibadan; and
v.	New Eden Primary School, Akingbola, Ibadan.

1.8	 Limitation of the Study 
Both Preschool teachers and Head Administrators (Headmistress/Headmaster) exhibited cold attitude towards the filling of the questionnaire by the teachers, this was due to, firstly, the seemingly sensitive nature of the study and secondly, because of their busy schedule with the pupils. The researcher was able to overcome this limitation by telling them it was for research work only and there would be confidentiality of information. Also, the researcher gave them enough time to fill the questionnaire at their own free period. Moreover, the pupils were willing to engage with a new auntie which helped in the area of administration of the academic achievements’ test. Lastly, based on time constraint the study was delimited to Literacy and Numeracy in the selected private and public preschools in Ibadan North Local Government,  Oyo State.

1.9 	Operational Definition of Terms
To ensure clarity and precision in this study the following terms were defined the way they were used in this study:
Academic Achievement: 	This refers to the cognitive and academic achievement of preschoolers, which may include measures such as literacy and numeracy skills, language development, problem-solving abilities, and overall school readiness. In this study it is the scores obtained from Literacy and Numeracy test given to the students in selected preschools for the study.
Preschoolers: These are children between the ages of three (3) and five (5) years who are enrolled in preschools. In this study it is the pupils of age 5 years in preschool.
Teachers' Attitude: This refers to the teacher-student relationships, instructional methods and classroom climate towards the teaching of the preschoolers.
Teacher-student Relationships: This refers to the quality of relationships between teachers and students such as – rapport, trust, and effective communication which can help students’ engagement, motivation and willingness to participate in Literacy and Numeracy activities.
Instructional Methods: This is the use of interactive and hand-on activities, differentiated instruction and the incorporation of real-world examples to enhance learning.
Classroom Climate: This is the positive reinforcement, respect and a supportive learning environment created by the teacher. 
Professional Qualifications: These refer to the educational qualification of the teachers (level of education), year of teaching experience, and continuing professional development of preschool teachers.
Educational Qualifications: These are qualifications held by teachers of preschoolers. That is, level of Education such as degree level, additional, specialisation and additional certifications relevant to language and Numeracy instruction.
Years of Experience: This is the full productive years of participation in the teaching of preschoolers. That is, the number of years that has been acquired in the teaching profession as early childhood educator.
 Continuing Professional Development (CPD): This is the process of tracking and documenting the skills, knowledge and experience that the preschool educator gained both formally and informally as he/she work beyond any initial training.
Ibadan North Local Government: 	This refers to the specific administrative division within Oyo State, Nigeria, encompassing the designated geographical area where this study will be conducted which includes the relevant preschools and educational institutions located within this specific area.

Endnotes
1.	A. U. Okeke, Preschool Education in Nigeria: Problems and Prospects. International Journal of Early Childhood Education and Care, 6(1), 2017, 12-17.

2.	Federal Ministry of Education. National Policy on Education. Abuja, Nigeria. 2013.

3.	K. Sylva, E. Melhuish, P. Sammons, I. Siraj-Blatchford & B. Taggart, The Effective Provision of Pre-School Education (EPPE) Project: Final Report. Institute of Education, University of London. 2004

4.	OECD. Starting Strong III: A Quality Toolbox for Early Childhood Education and Care. OECD Publishing. 2012

5.	T. Smith & J. Johnson, The Role of Teacher Attitudes in Promoting a Positive Classroom Climate. Journal of Classroom Interaction, 55(2), 2020, 54-66.

6.	M. T. Wang & J. L. Degol, School Climate: A Review of the Construct, Measurement, and Impact on Student Outcomes. Educational Psychology Review, 31(2), 2019, 315-352.

7.	S. Schaub & M. Lutolf, Attitudes and Self-efficacy of Early Childhood Educators towards the Inclusion of Children with disability in Day-care. European Journal of Special Needs Education, 2023, DOI: 1080/08856257.2023.2200106.

8.	Hien, Thi Thanh Vu, Truong VUong Vu, Van Thi Vu, Son Quang Mai, & Trang Ho Thuc Lam, Investigation of Preschool Teachers’ Attitude towards the Teaching Profession, Humanities and Social Sciences Letters, Conscientia Beam, Vol 10(4), 2022, 525-532. https://archive.conscientiabeam.com/index.php/73/article/view/31/81/7026

9.	S. H. Allehyani, Bilingualism Matters: Early Childhood Education Teachers’ Attitudes towards Children’s Creativity. Journal of Childhood Education and Society, Vol 4(1), 2023. DOI: 10.37291/2717638X.202341255

10.	O. A. Omobowale & M. O. Adeleke, Motivation and Job Satisfaction as Correlates of Attitude towards Teaching among Secondary School Teachers in Ogun State, Nigeria. International Journal of Educational Administration, Planning and Research, 12(2), 2020, 71-82.

11.	A. A. Ali, O. O. Adeleke, A. A. Abdullahi & N. S. Shehu, Teachers' Attitude towards Instructional Material Utilization for Effective Teaching and Learning of Mathematics in Lower Basic Schools. Journal of Studies in Education, 11(1), 2021, 109-126.

12.	L. J. Martinez & E. Garcia, Teachers’ Professional Qualifications and Preschoolers’ Mathematics Achievement: A Multilevel Analysis. Early Education and Development, 31(4), 2020, 493-514.

13.	R. N. Okoye & G. U. Eze, Policy Reform 	of Early Childhood Education in Nigeria: Issues and Prospects. Journal of Education and Practice, 10(17), 2019, 101-108.

14.	B. B. Onwuagboke & N. O. Amaechi, Teachers’ Professional Qualifications and Job Satisfaction as Correlates of Quality Assurance in Early Childhood Education Centres in Rivers State, Nigeria. Journal of Research in Education and Society, 11(3), 2020, 39-49.
 
15.	M. Ibrahim & M. Abdullahi, Early Childhood Education in Nigeria: the Development, Challenges and Way Forward. Journal of Education and Practice, 11(11), 2020, 150-157.

16.	A. A. Adekunle & M. O. Ogundele, Preschool Teachers' Qualification and Its Relationship to Pupils' Academic Performance in Lagos State, Nigeria. European Journal of Education Studies, 8(1), 2022, 1-14.

Chapter Two
Literature Review
Relevant literature to this study will be review under the following subheadings: 
2.1	Conceptual Review
2.1.1	Concept of Preschool and Early Childhood Education
2.1.2	Concept of Academic achievement 
2.1.3	Factors Affecting Students’ Academic Achievement.
2.1.4	Concept of Academic achievement in Preschool 
2.1.5	Academic Achievement in Literacy 
2.1.6	Academic Achievement in Numeracy 
2.1.7	Concept of Teacher
2.1.8	Concept of Teachers’ Attitude
2.1.9	Teachers’ Professional Qualifications
2.2	Theoretical Review
2.2.1	The Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
2.2.2 	Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory 
2.2.3	Walberg’s Theory of Educational Productivity
2.3	Review of Empirical Studies 
2.3.1	Teachers’ Attitude and Academic Achievements
2.3.2 	Professional Qualifications and Academic Achievement  
2.4	Conceptual Model	
2.5	Summary of Literature Reviewed 

2.1	Conceptual Review
The conceptual review involves examining relevant concepts and theories related to teachers' attitudes, professional qualifications, academic achievement, and the specific subjects of Literacy and Numeracy. The review aims to provide a theoretical foundation for understanding the potential impact of teachers' attitudes and qualifications on preschoolers' academic achievements in these subjects.

2.1.1	Concept of Preschool and Early Childhood Education
Preschool and early childhood education play a crucial role in laying the foundation for children's lifelong learning and development. Preschool education refers to the formal education provided to children aged 3 to 5 years before they enter primary school. It focuses on promoting children's physical, cognitive, social, and emotional development through structured learning experiences1. Early childhood education, on the other hand, encompasses a broader age range, typically from birth to 8 years, and includes various educational and developmental interventions during this critical period2. Both preschool and early childhood education aim to provide a nurturing and stimulating environment that fosters children's holistic growth.
The goals of preschool and early childhood education are multifaceted. Firstly, they aim to promote children's school readiness by developing their cognitive and language skills, social competence, and emotional regulation3. Research has shown that children who participate in high-quality early education programmes demonstrate better academic performance, social skills, and long-term educational outcomes4. Additionally, these programmes foster children's creativity, curiosity, and love for learning, laying a strong foundation for their future educational journeys.
The components of effective preschool and early childhood education programmes encompass a range of elements. One crucial aspect is a developmentally appropriate curriculum that takes into account children's age, abilities, and interests. The curriculum should provide a balanced emphasis on various domains, including language and literacy, mathematics, science, social studies, physical development, and the arts 5. A play-based approach is often employed, as it allows children to actively engage in meaningful experiences, promoting their cognitive, social, and emotional development6. 
Highly qualified and skilled teachers are essential in delivering quality preschool and early childhood education. They possess the knowledge and expertise to create a supportive and inclusive learning environment, individualize instruction, and effectively engage children in learning activities7. Teacher-child interactions characterized by warmth, responsiveness, and effective communication are critical for fostering children's cognitive and socio-emotional development8. 
Preschool and early childhood education are fundamental in providing children with a strong foundation for their future educational success. These programmes contribute to children's cognitive, social, emotional, and physical development, preparing them for a smooth transition to formal schooling. Effective preschool and early childhood education programmes emphasize developmentally appropriate curricula, play-based learning experiences, and well-trained teachers. By investing in high-quality preschool and early childhood education, societies can promote equity, enhance educational outcomes, and support children's overall well-being.

2.1.2	Concept of Academic Achievement 
Academic achievement is a multifaceted concept that encompasses students' performance, progress, and accomplishments in various academic domains. It is a key indicator of educational success and serves as an important outcome measure in assessing the effectiveness of educational interventions. Academic achievement is often measured through standardised tests, grades, and other performance indicators; and it is a measurable and observable behaviour of a student within specific period1. It consists of scores obtained by a student in an assessment such as class exercise, mock examination and end of the term examination.
	Academic achievement of students is a key in education. It is considered to be the center around which the whole education system revolves. Also, in the same vein, it is believed that academic achievement of students determines the success or failure of any academic institution. It has a direct impact on the socio-economic development of a country1. 
It is a fact that the student’s academic achievement, which is one of the most basic and indispensable aims of educational institutions, is also an expectation of society. Therefore, when education systems are setting their goals and objectives, they take academic achievement into consideration alongside a number of competences. Achievement is progress made towards attaining one’s goals2. In other words, achievement can be expressed as progress made towards attaining the goals determined by individuals or institutions. In terms of the student, achievement means reaching the objectives framed in the curriculum. In educational institutions, however, the aim of this achievement is to improve and advance academically. Academic achievement is the knowledge, skills, success and development instilled in students by the teacher in schools2. Academic achievement involves the student’s changes in behaviour in all curriculum domains other than behaviours in the psychomotor and affective domains. In order to enable academic achievement, it is expected that students will successfully carry out the tasks given to them, display a perfectionist approach, show resistance in the face of obstacles and develop strategies for overcoming difficulties that they face2.  Invariably, one can say that academic achievement provides bedrock for knowledge acquisition and the development of skills. Additionally, it would be suffice to say that the topmost priority of all educators is academic achievement of students. It is the knowledge gained which is assessed by marks by a teacher or educational goals set by students and teachers to be achieved over a specific period of time1. These goals are measured by using continuous assessment or examinations results. It enables students and parents to know the current academic state of the students. Academic achievement is a measurable and observable behaviour of a student within specific period1. It consists of scores obtained by a student in an assessment such as class exercise, continuous assessment and end of the term examination.
Research has consistently shown that academic achievement is influenced by a variety of factors, including individual characteristics, home environment, school-related factors, and teaching practices. Students' academic achievement is influenced by their cognitive abilities, motivation, self-regulation, and socio-emotional well-being2. Additionally, family support, parental involvement, socioeconomic status, and access to educational resources play significant roles in shaping students' academic outcomes3.
Within the context of preschool education, academic achievement takes on a developmental perspective. Preschoolers' academic achievements are characterized by their cognitive, language, and early literacy and numeracy skills. Early childhood education provides a crucial foundation for academic success in later years, and preschoolers' achievements in key subjects such as Literacy and Numeracy are indicators of their readiness for formal schooling4. In the Nigerian context, academic achievement among preschoolers is of particular importance as it sets the stage for their future educational trajectories. However, there are unique challenges and considerations specific to the Nigerian early childhood education system. Factors such as limited access to quality preschool education, resource constraints, and cultural influences may impact preschoolers' academic achievements5.
It is worth noting that academic achievement is not solely based on cognitive abilities and subject-specific knowledge. Holistic development and a broad range of skills, including social-emotional competencies, creativity, and critical thinking, contribute to students' academic success6. Therefore, fostering a supportive and inclusive learning environment that nurtures all aspects of development is essential in promoting preschoolers' academic achievements. Academic achievement is a multifaceted concept influenced by various individual, family, and school-related factors. Preschoolers' academic achievements in subjects like Literacy and Numeracy are crucial indicators of their readiness for formal schooling. Understanding the factors that influence academic achievement among preschoolers in Ibadan North, Oyo state, Nigeria, is essential for designing effective interventions and promoting positive outcomes in early childhood education.
A student's success in the classroom is a major factor in deciding how far they'll go in life. Students who do well in school acquire valuable knowledge and abilities that may be used to improve society and boost the economy. Researchers in the field of educational psychology have made it their mission to determine what influences pupils to succeed in the classroom. Experts in the field have been curious about this for a very long time. Many studies have found that students' cognitive talents, such as their reasoning, memory, and problem-solving skills, are significant predictors of their academic performance5, 6, 7. Researchers look at both cognitive and non-cognitive characteristics as possible predictors of academic achievement. Non-cognitive elements include things like self-esteem, emotional intelligence, family, and peer impact. This is because it is not adequate to judge students' academic performance based merely on their cognitive capacities. 
Learning outcomes, whether from direct or indirect learning processes, are strongly correlated with students' academic performance. That a student's ability to learn is affected by both internal and external variables is implied by the statement8, 9. Student performance in school can also be affected by circumstances beyond of the student's control, such as their home life, community, and socioeconomic background. Students' intrinsic characteristics, including their motivation, self-concept, readiness, discipline, and independence, play a significant role in the learning process. Internal elements, such as self-concept and learning freedom, are critical in predicting successful educational results.
Academic success, according to studies, is the demonstration of performance outcomes on standardized educational objectives in an academic setting at any grade level, including elementary school, secondary school, and university. Therefore the term "academic achievement" refers to a wide range of competencies, from mastery of specific subjects like math and physics to mastery of more generalized skills like critical thinking that may be applied in a variety of contexts. Due to the variety of outcomes, the definition of academic performance is best determined by the technique used to evaluate it10. Grading is a curricular-based system, while certificates and diplomas are cumulative-based systems, both of which are used to determine academic success. Grade point averages (GPAs) and the results of standardized tests like the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT) are widely used in many Western countries as measures of academic achievement.

2.1.3	Factors Affecting Students’ Academic Achievement
	Many factors influence the educational outcome of students. Some of these have been studied by researchers both at global and national level with many emphasizing school factors, teachers’ factor, gender, age, family monthly income, study hours, stimulant use during the study. Literacy proficiency, teacher satisfaction, mother education and father education of the student, family income, size of family, motivation of parents, involvement in co-curricular activities, regularity of teacher and interest in subject,, socio-economic, psychological and environmental factor7.
	At national level, several studies have been conducted in different states in Nigeria to assess the factors which contribute to academic achievement of students. In South West, a study concluded that students’ factors, parental background, school factors and teachers’ factors have serious influence on students’ academic achievement 8. The result of another study conducted in Lagos State found that there is a moderate significant relationship between schooling experience and senior secondary school students’ academic achievement. Based on the findings, the study recommended that schooling experience of the Senior Secondary School Students in terms of punctuality and attendance should be improved so as to have a very high academic achievement 9. 
Additionally, a study carried out also in Lagos State established the fact that among many others, that school facilities such as library, school building, ICT and laboratory have influence on the academic achievement of secondary school students 10.  A study conducted in Ekiti State to investigate the influence of school location on students’ academic achievement in Junior Secondary School Basic Science findings revealed that there was statistical significant difference in the achievement mean scores of students in urban and rural school located areas 11.
	It was believed; also that educational system in Nigeria has been experiencing serious backwardness because of poor teachers’ quality which consequently leads to low students’ academic achievement. In order to prove the assertion, a study was carried out aimed at investigating the relationship between teachers’ quality and students’ academic achievement in Yewa South Local Government Area of Ogun State. The findings showed that teachers’ quality especially years of teaching experience strongly influenced students’ academic achievement 12.
	Academic achievement of student is influenced by a combination of factors which includes but not limited to: Parents’ level of education, socio-economic status, interest in a subject, gender, regular studying, punctuality in class, self-motivation, availability of teaching and learning materials, competency of teachers, school environment, personal goals and personality traits. These factors could be classified into student, teacher, school and parents’ factors1.
	It is evident that students play a critical role towards their academic achievement. Student related factors that contribute to academic achievement of students include insufficient effort, lack of self-motivation, learning preference, previous and recent academic performance, students’ academic attitude and previous school13. In addition, students’ factors such as examination malpractice, poor studying habits, peer influence, absenteeism, lack of self-confidence, drugs, alcohol, crime, psychiatric, severe family problems, students’ indiscipline, students’ personal goals as well as personality traits affect their academic achievement1.
	All the afore-mentioned factors are classified into internal and social factors 14. The internal factors that influence students’ academic achievement includes interest in content of a subject, internal satisfaction and aspiration, while the social factors includes social prestige and material rewards.
	The literatures reviewed indicated that students’ factors which influence their academic achievement is a combination of several indicators. However, from this review, it was found that interest in a subject, regular studying, class attendance, self-motivation and attitude of students towards learning are the key factors which affect their academic performance. This implies that if a student exhibit positive attitude towards these factors his or her academic achievement will improve all things being equal.
	Low achievement or failure of senior secondary school students in class is also influenced by teacher related factors. Commenting on the teachers’ related factors affecting students’ academic achievement among secondary school students, various researchers allude to poor student-teacher relationship, poorly coordinated supervisory activities, lack of commitment and poor attitudes by teachers, poor grounding in the subject area, poor teaching methods, immoral, unethical behaviours, victimization and sexual harassment of female students13. Additionally, a study that was carried out in Kenya on teacher factors influencing academic achievement found that teachers experience, age, gender and professional qualification had no statistical significant relationship with academic achievement of students. However, it was noticed that achievement targets completion of syllabus, paying attention to weak students, assignments, student evaluation and the teaching workload of a teacher had significant relationship with students’ academic achievement1. Moreover, in another study, it was found that combination of teacher and child-centered method have a positive effect on academic achievement. It was concluded that child-centered is more effective than teacher approach1. So also teacher experience and professional training have significant influence.
	In the same vein, another study concluded that teacher-student ratio, teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications. Teacher’s experience and qualification has a significant impact on academic achievement. It was emphasized that the level of teacher’s experience has significant impact on academic achievement in English Language and Mathematics1. The disposition was that schools with teachers with more than 10 years’ experience perform better than school with teachers with less than 10 years’ experience. From the foregoing, teacher factors that significantly affects students’ academic achievement as reviewed above include: Teachers’ teaching experience, completing of syllabus, paying attention to weak students, assignments, students’ evaluation, teachers effectiveness, teacher and student centered method of teaching, professional training, teacher to student ratio and qualification of teachers. It was also noticed that teacher’s age and gender have no effect on students’ academic achievement.
	School related factors are factors within the school which influence academic achievement. Among many indices that school factors comprised are class size (large and small class size), lesson delivery, class size, social dynamics in a school, school administration, principal’s supervisory practices, school location, school environment, student teachers ratio, physical, human and financial resources school management committees, physical facilities, human resources in form of teachers and support staff which are required based on availability of financial resources in schools. This makes financial resource to be a key resource in education provision14.
Of utmost importance to this study is teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications. Teachers can also cater to students’ different learning styles and ensure that they stay engaged and understand what is being taught. Teachers have more time to individualize their feedback, ensuring that each student understands the material, can get the help they need and can reach his or her potential. Also, in a small class ideas are shared, with fewer students in a class, there is more time for them to share their own ideas, express their opinions and describe their perspectives. They can really dive into where these ideas come from and enrich their knowledge, which means even shy students have the chance to embrace their ideas and share them with the peers. On the opposite is large class size, it is one of the problems in the educational sector that developing nations have been grappling with. The size of large class in any institution appears to be major challenges to the teachers, institution management and other stakeholders15. Large class sizes result in less time being utilized for instruction due to more instances of students’ misbehavior and off-task behaviour.  
A lack of adequate physical space with which to control students’ behaviour and to implement non-traditional instructional strategies is also a problem in large classes. Large classes are often cited as being harder for the teachers to maintain student discipline, resulting in the focus of the classroom environment being more on student behaviour than on students’ academic achievement16. Summarily, large class size directly affects classroom instruction due to the fact that teachers will utilize class time for management tasks rather than for instruction. Also, large class size directly affects classroom instruction through the interactions of the teachers with the students.
In addition, when considering students’ academic achievement, environmental factors cannot is another factor that may influence the academic achievement of pupils. Environment is the sum total of all surroundings of living organism including natural forces and other living things, which provide conditions for development and growth. Environmental factors are factors that affect students from performing optimally in their academics within the students’ environment. In a broader perspective, learning environment does not only depict natural forces and living things, but rather, it refers to the social, psychological and pedagogical contexts in which learning occurred that affect the students’ attitude and the achievement17. There are many ways to assess the psycho-social environment, but self-reported questionnaire is the commonest tool used to assess the psychosocial environment18.

2.1.4	Concept of Academic Achievement in Preschool 
Academic achievement in preschool is a critical aspect of children's overall development and future academic success. It refers to the cognitive, language, and early literacy and numeracy skills that children acquire during their preschool years. Academic achievement in early childhood is often seen as an important foundation for later academic performance19. Research has highlighted the significance of early academic achievement in predicting long-term academic outcomes. Studies have found that children who demonstrate higher levels of academic achievement in early childhood are more likely to experience academic success in later grades20. These early achievements are closely tied to the development of foundational skills such as pre-reading, pre-writing, and early math skills21.
The concept of academic achievement in preschool extends beyond mere acquisition of knowledge and skills. It also includes the development of essential learning dispositions, such as curiosity, persistence, and engagement in learning activities. These dispositions are crucial for fostering a positive attitude towards learning and laying the groundwork for future academic achievements22. In preschool settings, academic achievement is often measured through a combination of teacher observations, assessments, and standardized measures specifically designed for young children. Assessments may focus on areas such as letter and number recognition, phonological awareness, vocabulary development, and basic mathematical concepts23. It is important to consider the contextual factors that influence academic achievement in preschool or early childhood education. Factors such as quality of the learning environment, instructional practices, teacher-child interactions, and parental involvement play vital roles in supporting children's academic progress and achievements24.
In the Nigerian context, understanding the concept of academic achievement in preschool education is crucial for addressing the unique challenges and opportunities within the early childhood education system. Factors such as access to quality early childhood education, cultural influences, and parental involvement have significant implications for children's academic achievements in Nigeria25. Assessing and promoting academic achievement in early childhood requires attention to both knowledge and skills acquisition as well as the learning environment and contextual factors that influence children's educational experiences.

2.1.5	Academic Achievement in Literacy 
Academic achievement in the Literacy among preschoolers is an important aspect of their language development and lays the foundation for their future academic success. Literacy proficiency is a vital skill for communication, literacy, and overall cognitive development. Research has shown that early exposure to and proficiency in Literacy skills are associated with better academic outcomes in later years26. In preschool settings, the development of Literacy skills involves various components such as vocabulary, phonological awareness, listening comprehension, speaking, and early reading and writing abilities. Preschoolers who acquire a strong foundation in these skills are better equipped to engage in language-rich activities, comprehend instructions, express themselves effectively, and develop early literacy skills27.
Studies have highlighted the importance of a language-rich environment in preschool classrooms for enhancing academic achievement in Literacy. Quality interactions, engaging instructional strategies, and exposure to diverse vocabulary and language structures contribute to children's language development and overall academic success28. It is essential to consider the cultural and socio-economic factors that influence academic achievement in Literacy among preschoolers. Factors such as home language environment, parental involvement, and exposure to Literacy outside of school play significant roles in language development. Understanding the contextual factors that shape language learning experiences is crucial for designing effective language instruction strategies29. Assessing academic achievement in Literacy among preschoolers requires the use of developmentally appropriate assessment tools and measures. These assessments may include standardized tests, teacher observations, language samples, and informal assessments to evaluate vocabulary knowledge, language comprehension, expressive language skills, and emerging literacy skills30.
In Nigeria, English Language is often a second language for many preschoolers, hence, understanding academic achievement in Literacy becomes even more important. The socio-cultural context, local dialects, and multilingualism influence the acquisition and use of Literacy skills. Exploring effective strategies for promoting Literacy proficiency while respecting children's cultural and linguistic diversity is essential for fostering academic achievement31. Academic achievement in Literacy among preschoolers may be a key predictor of their language development and future academic success. It involves various language components and is influenced by the language-rich environment, cultural factors, and appropriate assessment practices. Enhancing academic achievement in Literacy requires tailored instructional strategies that consider the unique needs and cultural backgrounds of preschoolers.

2.1.6	Academic Achievement in Numeracy 
Early exposure to and proficiency in Numeracy skills are associated with better mathematical outcomes in later years1. It lays the foundation for later mathematical skills and contributes to their overall cognitive growth. Preschoolers' development of Numeracy skills involves various components, such as number sense, counting, basic operations, and problem-solving abilities. These skills are crucial for developing mathematical reasoning, spatial awareness, and critical thinking skills2. Research has shown that preschoolers who have a strong foundation in Numeracy concepts demonstrate higher levels of mathematical achievement in subsequent grades32.
Previous studies have highlighted the importance of a mathematically rich environment in preschool classrooms for enhancing academic achievement in Numeracy. Engaging instructional strategies, hands-on manipulative, and meaningful mathematical activities contribute to children's understanding and mastery of Numeracy concepts33. Assessing academic achievement in Numeracy among preschoolers requires the use of developmentally appropriate assessment tools and measures. These assessments may include informal observations, one-on-one interviews, and tasks that assess number recognition, counting skills, basic operations, and problem-solving abilitie34. Factors such as home numeracy practices, parental involvement, and exposure to mathematical concepts in everyday life play significant roles in mathematical development. 
Developing academic achievement in Numeracy among preschoolers is of particular importance to preschoolers in Nigeria. It contributes to their foundational mathematical skills and prepares them for future academic success. Exploring culturally relevant and contextually appropriate approaches to teaching Numeracy is essential for supporting preschoolers' mathematical development35. Enhancing academic achievement in Numeracy requires tailored instructional strategies that consider the unique needs and cultural backgrounds of preschoolers.

2.1.7	Concept of Teacher
A teacher is a person having high value in society36, and the teaching or learning process is considered to be very important both for teacher and student. Teachers can play a vital role in the development of the nation. The process of education can be defined as a meaningful relationship between teacher and student37. A teacher performs a direct and crucial role in the life of a student38. The teaching purpose of a teacher is to create confidence in the student. It is important to maintain competent teachers to offer valuable education in schools. School is one of the places where learning occurs. It is a central point for learners to study and enhance their academic and social values. Every school is struggling to manage skilful, competent professional teaching staff who can professionally teach students. Expert, knowledgeable and devoted teaching staff can produce intelligent students who show good results in examination39. However, it has been discovered that teachers’ roles and the teaching learning process are highly disturbed by the additional duties of teachers39. According to the literature, most teachers were engaged in polio campaigns, population censuses, universal primary education and other inappropriate activities, and these activities have a negative impact on the performance of teachers, as these were identified as contrary to the role of teachers. It was identified that when teachers are self-sufficient and have no burden of additional work, they feel more satisfaction from their work and have a strong desire to continue their profession as a teacher40.
A teacher acts as classroom manager and thus is responsible for planning and managing activities for students. A teacher should be careful and consciously plan the curricular and co-curricular actions and behaviour of their students. In this way, teachers efficiently and successfully organize the learners’ holistic development and progress39. Experience, academic skills, tutorial capabilities and helpful behaviour are useful techniques to control the classroom. A teacher’s usefulness and effectiveness may be evident by their learners’ academic achievement. If students’ achievements are good, it means that the teacher is beneficial and effective to students41. However, various non-teaching duties like administrative tasks, examination-related duties such as invigilating, paper marking and result feeding, and other duties like election training, census, assisting in disaster activities, flood relief activities, inspections of schools with executives among many others force teachers to remain away from the classroom. While, the basic duty of a teacher is to stay in class for teaching but unfortunately teachers are sent out of class to perform these non-teaching duties41. A researcher identified teachers as performing such non-teaching duties that have no link with the teaching learning process. These non-teaching duties have a negative impact on teacher performance as well as student performance and increases drop out. Consequently, teachers were left with no time to prepare their lessons51. Another bad side of non-teaching additional assignments is the creation of misunderstanding, confusion, ambiguity, resistance and conflict. Usually, teachers complain that these additional duties are more than normal teaching responsibilities. If teachers decline to perform such duties, then they are expected to face consequences from top management. If teachers remain away from classes, the salient question is that how then do students acquire new knowledge and skills in the classroom?41 It is good to note that success in any worthwhile endeavour may be contingent upon certain critical variables or factors. This can also be said of student’s achievement in school. Moreover, it has been argued that one key overriding factor for the success of the students’ overall achievement in their academic pursuit is the teacher not just mere teachers but quality teachers35, 36. This is because the development of any society is largely determined by the quality of its education and the quality of teachers in education industry can either make or mar the academic standard of students in all ramifications of educational endeavors. Therefore, quality of teacher is seen among measures that enrich the achievement of the students in schools. Teachers’ quality, however, can be regarded as one of the bedrocks that immeasurably influence the academic achievement of the students across all levels of educational system in Nigeria.
In the contemporary Nigeria however, the professional qualification of teacher of Literacy and Numeracy at early childhood level should be based on the exposure to rigorous professional exercises to possess specialized knowledge and skills. Like others in the same profession, he/she must have pursued his/her professional skills in one or more educational institutions to obtain one or more of the following certificates; the NCE certification is the minimum qualification for a career in teaching; Bachelor’s Degree in Early childhood Education, and/or Post Graduate Diploma in Education (PGDE).
In addition, a teacher is expected to possess certain qualities such as communication ability, emotional stability, teaching style, clear objective for lesson, effective discipline, good classroom management skills, knowledge of curriculum and standards, knowledge of subject matter and passion for students and teaching55. However, there has never been consensus on the specific teacher factors that influence students’ academic achievement. Researchers have examined the influence of teacher characteristics such as gender, educational qualifications and teaching experience on students’ academic achievement with varied findings. A study found that there was a significant relationship between teachers’ gender and students’ academic achievement, while another established the fact that teachers’ experience and educational qualifications were the prime predictors of students’ academic achievement38. A study in Ghana found that the teacher factors that significantly contributed to low academic achievement were incidences of lateness to school, incidences of absenteeism, and inability to complete the syllabi, whereas, in another work it was concluded that teacher management of homework and assignments given to students have an impact on student achievement especially when it is well explained, motivational, corrected and reviewed during class time and used as an occasion for feedback to students38, 39. Other teacher factors that have been identified as affecting student academic achievements are teachers’ quality, teachers’ attitude, qualification, effectiveness, competence or mastery, school administrators’ supervisory practices and teacher’s teaching method40.
 
2.1.8	Concept of Teachers’ Attitude
Teacher's attitude towards teaching plays a crucial role in shaping the learning environment and influencing students' academic outcomes. Teachers’ attitude on teaching refers to their beliefs, values, and feelings about the teaching profession and their role as educators. It encompasses their attitudes towards students, curriculum, instructional methods, classroom management, and professional development1. Teachers' attitudes can be influenced by their personal experiences, educational background, teaching philosophy, and the context in which they work.
Attitude is a developmental state of an early childhood teacher created by psycho-biological processes, exerting a motivational influence upon the individual’s responsive behaviour in situations directly and indirectly related to it. It is viewed as internal beliefs that influences personal actions which is learned through experience10. Attitude is an early childhood teacher’s feelings, thought and predisposition to behave in some particular manner towards some aspects of environment33. It could be defined as a consistent tendency to react in a particular way, often positively or negatively toward any matter34. 
The teachers’ attitude is an imaginary construct that indicates their like and dislike towards teaching at early childhood education level. It is an approach, temperament, sensation, situation, among others with regard to a person or thing: leaning or course, particularly of the mind35. Attitude is a readiness of early childhood education teachers to respond in such a way that behaviour is given a certain direction36. Attitudes refer to the ability to predict an early childhood education teacher’s behaviour toward certain targets. It is regarded as a predisposition to respond favourably or unfavourably to a person, object or an event37. 
Attitude is a mental or neural state of readiness, organized through experience, exerting a directive or dynamic influence upon individual’s response to all objects and situations with which it is related38. Attitudes may be defined as acquired and psychological variables, mental state achieved through life experience that direct early childhood education teachers' behaviour39, 40. Early childhood education teachers' attitude is a series of beliefs that predispose them to behave in a particular way towards the teaching of preschoolers41. 
Teachers’ attitude is a mindset that affects how an early childhood education teacher feels (affection), thinks (cognition) and acts (behavioural) in relation to teaching at early childhood education level. Attitude can affect how well an early childhood education teacher plans and prepares for his/her lessons. The attitude of a teacher whether positive or negative, consciously or unconsciously, greatly affects pupils’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy42. Attitude may be positive, negative or neutral. Attitude is an approach, temperament, sensation, situation, and so on, with regard to a person or thing: inclination or course, especially of the mind. Attitude is a way of looking at things.
There are three components of attitude stated as follows:
1.	Affective component is a feeling or emotion that an early childhood education teacher has about the object or situation such as teaching preschoolers;
2.	Cognitive components are beliefs or ideas that early childhood education teachers have about objects or situations; and
3.	Behavioural components which show how an early childhood education teacher intends or wishes to teach Literacy and Numeracy subject43.
Attitude reflects the experiences of teachers in the past and in the present and are expressed through behaviour. Teachers’ attitude is a consistent predisposition towards their teaching environment. It is suggested that teacher’s attitude influences their actions. It is a predisposition to organize object, events and react to them with some reliability. It involves intellectual preparation relating to postures, actions, and determines what people think, do, hear and see. Attitude towards profession determines teachers’ willingness to develop as a professional. Teachers with a positive attitude towards teaching profession facilitate learning through their commitment and skill44.
 The significance of teachers’ attitude on teaching lies in its potential to impact pupils’ motivation, engagement, and academic achievement. Research has shown that teachers with positive attitudes towards teaching create a supportive and inspiring learning environment that fosters students' enthusiasm and active participation in the learning process36. Conversely, negative attitudes may hinder effective instruction and student learning outcomes.
The dimensions of teachers’ attitude on teaching can vary, but common themes include teacher-student relationships, instructional practices, classroom climate, and professional growth. Positive teacher-student relationships characterised by trust, respect, and empathy have been found to enhance student motivation, self-esteem, and overall academic achievement3. Effective instructional practices aligned with student needs and interests, such as differentiated instruction and active learning strategies, can promote deeper understanding and engagement37.
The classroom climate, influenced by teachers’ attitude, plays a crucial role in creating a safe and inclusive learning environment. A positive classroom climate encourages collaboration, risk-taking, and positive social interactions among students, fostering their social-emotional development and well-being38. Teachers' attitudes towards professional growth and continuous learning are also vital. A growth mindset and a commitment to ongoing professional development contribute to teacher effectiveness and the adoption of evidence-based instructional strategies39.
The impact of teachers’ attitude on teaching is well-documented in educational research; for instance, studies have consistently found a positive correlation between teachers’ positive attitudes and student academic achievement40. Teachers who demonstrate enthusiasm, passion, and dedication in their teaching are more likely to inspire and motivate students to achieve their full potential. 
Thus, teachers’ attitude on teaching is an important factor in creating a positive and effective learning environment. Positive attitudes towards teaching, characterised by positive teacher-student relationships, effective instructional practices, a supportive classroom climate, and a commitment to professional growth, will contribute to an improved student motivation, engagement, and academic achievement. It is essential for educational stakeholders to recognise the significance of teachers’ attitude and provide support and resources for fostering positive attitudes among educators.

2.1.9	Teachers’ Professional Qualifications
Teachers' professional qualifications play an important role in shaping the quality of education and the academic achievement of pupils. Extensive research has examined the relationship between teachers' professional qualifications and their effectiveness in the classroom41. Studies have consistently shown that teachers with higher levels of education and specialized training tend to be more effective in promoting student learning and academic success42. For example, a meta-analysis conducted found a positive correlation between teachers' educational qualifications and student achievement across multiple countries and educational systems43.
Qualified Early childhood education teacher refers to one who has achieved the minimum criteria for teaching at this particular level of education that guides learners to get new and basics knowledge, and skills. Having degrees, certificated as well as diplomas are considered to be the basic requirements that lead to preschool’s teacher qualification and also having effective code of conduct so as to meet the universal schooling goals41. 
A qualified preschool teacher is a professionally prepared early childhood education teacher in content and methods of teaching of at this level of education. It was added that a professional university degree preschool teacher is expected to have a B.Ed. in early childhood education, or Nigerian certificate of education (N.C.E.) in early childhood education43.
Teachers' Qualification (TQ) entails the basic training acquired by an early childhood education teacher which enables him/her to practice in the teaching profession. Certification is a measure of early childhood education teacher qualifications that combines aspects of knowledge on the subject matter about teaching and learning. Early childhood education teachers’ certification is defined as the traditional primary gatekeeper machinery for the teaching profession at this level of education. It was added that the precise requirements for certification vary from one country to another; however, it should include the completion of an accredited and approved early childhood education teacher education programme, practice teaching, and a formal recommendation from an institution of higher education. Early childhood education teachers’ certification also refers to the academic preparation and competency testing required of preschool teachers12, 43. 
It is further defined as those qualities that early childhood education teachers have even before they are employed as early childhood education teachers and that are often assumed to contribute to the quality of their teaching. These qualities are called “early childhood education teachers’ personal resources”. They include: knowledge, skills and expertise, beliefs, values, credentials, personal traits, coursework, grades, subject-matter education, test scores, experience, certification, as well as evidence of participation in continued learning such as internships, induction, and professional development. These are resources that early childhood education teachers bring with them to the classroom and are considered important in establishing who should be allowed to teach42.
In the context of this study, teacher educational qualification is defined as a special skill or knowledge that makes an early childhood education teacher suitable to teach preschoolers in Oyo state. These skills include - knowledge of subject matter, human growth and development, ethical values, instructional planning and strategies, assessment, learning environment, communication and advocacy, collaboration and partnership, continuous professional development, code of conduct and skillful use of information communication technologies41, 42.
The level and type of teachers' professional qualifications have been identified as significant factors in determining teaching quality. Higher levels of education, such as a master's degree or beyond, provide teachers with a deeper understanding of subject matter content, pedagogical strategies, and instructional methods44. Teachers with advanced degrees are better equipped to design engaging and meaningful learning experiences, adapt instruction to diverse student needs, and apply research-based practices in the classroom45. Additionally, specialized training and certifications in areas such as early childhood education or subject-specific teaching methods enhance teachers' knowledge and expertise, enabling them to effectively address the unique developmental and learning needs of preschoolers in specific subjects like Literacy and Numeracy46. 
In the Nigerian context, the importance of teachers' professional qualifications is highlighted in various education policies and frameworks. For instance, the National Policy on Education emphasises the need for qualified and competent teachers to deliver quality education47. However, research indicates that there are gaps in the qualifications of teachers in Nigeria, particularly in early childhood education. Adequate qualifications and training are crucial for teachers to effectively implement appropriate instructional strategies, create supportive learning environments, and meet the developmental needs of preschoolers48.
It is important to note that teachers' professional qualifications are not limited to formal education and degrees. Professional development and continuous learning opportunities also contribute to enhancing teachers' qualifications and improving their instructional practices. Ongoing professional development programmes, workshops, and collaborative learning communities enable teachers to stay updated with the latest research, instructional methods, and assessment techniques49. These opportunities provide teachers with the necessary tools and knowledge to enhance their teaching skills and meet the evolving needs of preschoolers. 
Teachers' professional qualifications, including their level of education, specialized training, and ongoing professional development, significantly impact their effectiveness in the classroom. Research consistently demonstrates the positive relationship between teachers' qualifications and student academic achievement. In the Nigerian context, ensuring that teachers possess adequate qualifications and receive continuous professional development is crucial for enhancing the quality of preschool education and promoting positive outcomes in Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers in Ibadan North, Oyo state, Nigeria.
Further, years of experience can affect the teachers’ professional qualification, that is, the number of years of teaching an early childhood education teacher has spent in the classroom setting12. Early childhood education teacher experience has to do with the increased awareness of diversifying search for new ideas, new commitments and new challenges in area of early childhood education. Experience gained over time, enhances the knowledge, skills, and productivity of early childhood education teachers. These qualities facilitate students’ skills and abilities, and also enable thorough understanding of Literacy and Numeracy concepts. Experienced early childhood education teachers are great asset to novice early childhood education teachers who need advice, encouragement and continuous guidance28. Teaching experience is the number of years that an early childhood education teacher has worked or served or invested in the teaching career which produces a positive or negative influence on the students’ academic achievement at the early childhood education level45, 46. 
Experienced early childhood education teachers perceive teaching as more satisfying and enjoyable. Compared to novice early childhood education teachers, experienced early childhood education teachers are more familiar with applying effective instruction, managing unruly pupils and using successful teaching strategies. They are also more prepared for the unpredictability of classroom environment, which could mean less stress47. Teaching experience of an early childhood education teacher can be measured based on the early childhood education teacher’s ability around comprehension and transformation of knowledge, concept to be imparted to learners. It includes participation in professional development activities geared towards equipping the early childhood education teacher for better service delivery48.
In addition, teaching styles maters on the teachers, professionalism. Style is defined as a way of doing something especially typical of a person, group of people, place or period. Teaching style is therefore defined as methods, procedures and strategies used by an early childhood education teacher in instruction and interpersonal relations that have developed and matured throughout the years of personal and professional experience. It is further viewed as a combination of manners, tactics and behaviours inherent in the personality of an early childhood education teacher that immensely influence the teaching learning process21.
Teaching style is the way early childhood education teacher use when teaching Literacy and Numeracy subject. It is a conceptual model of teaching and learning from the early childhood education teacher to direct pupils' thoughts and actions. The teaching style is closely related to a specific behaviour, so the early childhood education teacher's teaching style can be perceived by students43. Teaching style shows early childhood education teachers’ own formal behaviour that are used consistently to covey, transmit knowledge and skills into pupils. It is further described as an early childhood education teachers’ way of communication and collaboration with students during delivering of subject content in the classroom. Teaching style includes the implementation of philosophy; it contains evidence of beliefs about values related to and attitudes toward all the elements of the teaching-learning exchange54.	
	Teaching styles is the collection of various instructional approaches used by the early childhood education teacher with ease and comfort; and is highly related to the context of learning rather than the content. Teaching style is method specific to early childhood education teacher personal behaviour and the media that early childhood education teacher use to covey and get information. One’s teaching style is the result of the way one learnt and not the way he/she was taught. It is based on the teaching philosophy and value system held by the early childhood education teacher regardless of the method and material. Teaching styles characterize a belief system along with the needs and behaviours that early childhood education teachers display in classrooms21. 
A teacher may either present information through pictures, diagrams, demonstration or it may be verbal through lectures, reading and discussion. A teacher may either encourage students to actively participate in discussions and activities or remain passive simply watching and listening. Lastly, a teacher may prefer a sequential mode of presenting the material in a systematic manner; or they could prefer to present a global picture first and then proceed to break it down21.

2.2	Theoretical Review
	This study will be anchored on the Social Cognitive Theory, Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory and Walberg’s Theory of Educational Productivity.
2.2.1	The Social Cognitive Theory (SCT)
The Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), is a widely recognized and influential theory that provides valuable insights into understanding human behaviour, learning, and development50. The SCT emphasizes the interaction between cognitive processes, social factors, and environmental influences in shaping individuals' attitudes, beliefs, and behaviors. This theory has significant relevance to the study of teachers' attitudes on teaching and their professional qualifications as predictors of academic achievement among preschoolers. A key concept of the SCT is self-efficacy, which refers to an individual's belief in their own abilities to perform successfully in a specific domain. In the context of teaching, teachers with higher levels of self-efficacy are more likely to demonstrate enthusiasm, commitment, and effectiveness in their teaching practices. They are also more likely to persist in the face of challenges and utilize effective instructional strategies that promote academic achievement among their students. Overall, the Social Cognitive Theory provides a comprehensive framework for understanding the complex interplay between cognitive processes, social influences, and environmental factors in shaping teachers' attitudes towards teaching and their professional qualifications. 
Therefore, the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) provides valuable insights into understanding the theoretical foundations and frameworks that underpin “Teachers' Attitude and Professional Qualifications as Predictors of Academic Achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among Preschoolers in Ibadan North, Oyo State, Nigeria”. This theory offers a comprehensive framework for examining the influence of cognitive processes, social interactions, and environmental factors on individuals' behavior, including teachers' attitudes and instructional practices. 
According to the SCT, individuals learn through a process of observation, imitation, and reinforcement. Teachers' attitudes towards teaching and their professional qualifications can be shaped by their cognitive processes, such as beliefs, self-efficacy, and outcome expectations. It was emphasized that teachers' self-efficacy, which refers to their beliefs in their own abilities to perform successfully as educators, plays a crucial role in shaping their attitudes towards teaching and their instructional practices50. Teachers with higher levels of self-efficacy are more likely to exhibit positive attitudes, engage in effective teaching strategies, and create a supportive learning environment for students.
 
2.2.2 	Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory 
This theory highlighted the role of social interaction and cultural context in learning51. This theory proposed the concept of the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD), which refers to the range of tasks that learners can perform with guidance and support from more knowledgeable individuals51. The importance of social interaction, collaboration, and scaffolding in promoting learning and cognitive development was emphasized. In the context of teaching, the theory of constructivism emphasizes the need for teachers to create learning environments that encourage active engagement, exploration, and problem-solving. Teachers serve as facilitators and guides who support students in constructing their knowledge and understanding. They provide opportunities for hands-on experiences, encourage critical thinking, and promote collaborative learning.
The Theory of Constructivism is a foundational framework that contributes to the understanding of the theoretical foundations and frameworks underlying the topic of teachers' attitudes towards teaching and their impact on academic achievement among preschoolers. Constructivism posits that learners actively construct knowledge and meaning through their interactions with the environment and social context in which they are situated52. Constructivist principles emphasised that, learning is a dynamic process that involves the active engagement of learners in constructing their understanding of the world52. This theoretical perspective emphasizes that learners are not passive recipients of knowledge but active participants who construct their knowledge through personal experiences, reflection, and social interactions52. In the context of preschool education, constructivism recognizes the importance of creating a learning environment that encourages exploration, discovery, and hands-on experiences for young learners.
When applied to the study of teachers' attitudes towards teaching, the theory of constructivism highlights the significance of teachers adopting a constructivist instructional approach. Teachers who embrace constructivist principles will value student-centered learning, encourage active participation, and promote critical thinking and problem-solving skills among their students. Such teachers will recognize the role of social interaction and collaboration in knowledge construction and create opportunities for students to engage in meaningful learning experiences. Through the understanding and application of the principles of constructivism, researchers and educators will gain insights into how teachers' attitudes towards teaching influence the learning experiences and academic achievement of preschoolers. This will provides a theoretical foundation for exploring how teachers' beliefs, instructional practices, and interactions with students shape the learning environment and contribute to the development of young learners.

2.2.3	Walberg’s Theory of Educational Productivity
This study is also anchored on Walberg’s theory of educational productivity (Academic Achievement) that has been tested as one of the few theories about academic achievement53. This theory suggests that the psychological characteristics of the students and their immediate psychological environments influence their educational outcomes (cognitive, behavioral, and attitudinal) 53. This is considered as the educational process goals as well as achievement goals to increase educational productivity. Within these approaches, the main point is that there are circumstances that can influence student’s academic achievement. 
Walberg identified nine key variables that can influence educational outcomes: student’s ability, motivation, age and stages of development, quantity of instruction, quality of instruction, classroom climate, home environment, peer group, and exposure to social media outside of school53.  First is student’s ability. As suggested by Walberg, student’s ability can influence educational outcomes for it shows the quality and skill of a student for being able to perform physically and mentally in school. A student's ability is in a major factor for the success in achieving a good academic performance of a student. A student may have abilities such thinking, perceiving, problem solving, and remembering which has a great contribution to their achievement in school. These abilities are beneficial in certain situations or particular tasks that could help a student attain greater performances at school.
Further, Motivation has been shown to positively influence study strategy, academic achievement, adjustment and well-being in students in domains of education other than medical education. Students need motivation to influence them to do tasks willingly. In this case, students tend to have a reason to act and respond quickly without being asked and to work hard thinking about the thing that motivates them. As observed, students who are most motivated to learn and excel in classroom activities tend to be the highest achievers. Conversely, students who have little interest in academic achievement are at high risk for dropping out before they graduate from high school. Third, age and the stages of development influence the educational outcomes.  Fourth is the quantity of instruction wherein it explains that the impact of the amount of instruction on a student's achievement depends on the total hours spent in school which do not significantly impact the student's outcomes unless the hours are unusually low or high. 
The actual time students spend engaged in a specific subject is critical. Over a years, conventional wisdom increases in the length of the school day and school year to improve the student's performance in school. Unfortunately, the evidence is not just there to support these efforts. Classroom time must be divided between time spent on instruction and time-off tasks (lunch, recess, moving from one class to another) and teachers need to ensure that an adequate amount of academic instruction is executed using quality instructional methods. Fifth is the quality of instructions which refers to the use of teaching approaches in the classroom to provide individual learning needs of all students. Quality of instructions has a big impact to the student’s academic achievement because it shows the level of the teaching skills of a teacher in teaching his students. A quality teacher is one who has a positive effect on student learning and development through their content mastery and communications skills. They are life-long learners and teach students with commitment. They transfer knowledge by learning process through good communication, knowledge about child development, and the ability to meet student needs. They support students in achieving their goals in life. Also, a teacher with positive attitude will have good teacher-student relationship, he or she will make use of instructional methods by the use of interactive and hand-on activities, differentiated instructions, the incorporation of real-world examples that will enhance learning, and the establishment of an environment for an effective learning, in school. By these, quality of instructions will have a big influence on the students’ academic achievements. Sixth is the classroom climate which includes the mood, attitude, standard and tone that the students feel when they are inside a classroom. 
A negative classroom climate can feel out of control while a positive classroom climate feels safe and supportive.  Classroom climate as the intellectual, social, emotional, and physical environments in which our students learn. Climate is determined of interacting factors that include faculty-student interaction, the tone instructors set, instances of stereotyping, the course demographics, student-student interaction, and the range of perspectives represented in the course content and materials. By these factors, the educational outcomes of a student will be affected. Classroom climate is affected not only by blatant situations of inequality directed to a person or group of people, but also by smaller, not obvious "micro iniquities" that can accumulate to have negative impacts on learning. Seventh is the professional qualification of the teachers which are educational qualification that is, level of education, years of experience and continuing professional development. 
With these disquisitions, one can distinguish how these identified key variables could affect specifically the academic performance of students. It also means to appear that the essential factors may substitute, compensate, or tradeoff for one another in diminishing rates of return: for example, immense quantities of time may be required for a moderate amount of learning to occur if finance, motivation, ability, or quality of instruction is minimal. 

2.3	Review of Empirical Studies 
2.3.1	Teachers’ Attitude and Academic Achievements
A study examined the attitudes of preschool teachers towards teaching and their impact on children's academic performance54. The findings indicated that teachers' positive attitudes towards teaching were significantly related to higher academic achievement among preschoolers. Another study explored the relationship between teachers' attitudes, instructional practices, and children's language development in early childhood classrooms55. The results demonstrated that teachers with more positive attitudes towards teaching adopted more effective instructional strategies, leading to better academic outcomes for preschoolers.
A study investigated the impact of professional development programmes on teachers' attitudes56. The findings indicated that targeted professional development opportunities, such as workshops and training sessions, positively influenced teachers' attitudes towards teaching, leading to improved instructional practices and student outcomes. Another important factor influencing teacher attitudes is the school climate and working conditions. A study examined the relationship between school climate and teacher attitudes towards teaching 57. The results showed that a positive and supportive school climate, characterized by collaboration, effective leadership, and a sense of community, was associated with more positive teacher attitudes and job satisfaction.
Furthermore, a research explored the role of teacher self-efficacy in shaping attitudes and instructional practices58. The findings indicated that teachers with high self-efficacy beliefs demonstrated more positive attitudes towards teaching, as well as a greater commitment to student success and engagement in effective instructional strategies. 
Other factors, such as teacher motivation, job satisfaction, and perceptions of student abilities, have also been found to impact teacher attitudes towards teaching. For instance, a study examined the relationship between teacher motivation and attitudes towards teaching59. The results revealed that teachers who reported higher levels of intrinsic motivation and passion for their profession exhibited more positive attitudes towards teaching. 
Socioeconomic factors, such as the economic status of teachers and the resources available in educational institutions, can influence teacher attitudes. A study in Kenya found that teachers from low-income backgrounds and those working in under-resourced schools reported lower levels of job satisfaction and more negative attitudes towards teaching60. Adequate remuneration, provision of teaching materials, and supportive working conditions were identified as important factors in fostering positive teachers’ attitudes.
A research was carried out in Nigeria highlighted the positive relationship between teachers’ motivation, job satisfaction, and attitudes towards teaching61. Factors such as recognition, career advancement opportunities, and supportive work environments were found to contribute to higher levels of teacher motivation and job satisfaction, leading to more positive attitudes.
The quality of teacher-student relationships has been recognized as an influential factor in teacher attitudes. A study in Nigeria revealed that teachers who had positive and supportive relationships with their students exhibited more positive attitudes towards teaching62. Effective communication, respect, and trust between teachers and students were identified as key elements in fostering positive teacher-student relationships.
Cultural and contextual factors specific to Africa and Nigeria play a role in shaping teacher attitudes. For instance, a research in Ethiopia highlighted the influence of cultural norms and values on teacher attitudes towards teaching63. Understanding and incorporating cultural perspectives in educational policies and practices can help create an environment that fosters positive teacher attitudes.
Empirical studies examining the relationship between teacher attitudes and academic achievements in Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers in the context of Africa and Nigeria have shed light on the important role that teacher attitudes play in shaping children's academic outcomes. For instance, a study in Nigeria found that teachers who had positive attitudes towards English Language instruction created a conducive learning environment that promoted children's language development and ultimately improved their academic performance64. Additionally, a research in Kenya highlighted the importance of teachers' enthusiasm, motivation, and effective instructional strategies in fostering children's English Language skills and academic achievement65.
Teacher attitudes towards Numeracy instruction have also been found to significantly influence preschoolers' academic achievements. A study in Nigeria revealed that teachers who had positive attitudes towards Numeracy instruction employed engaging and interactive teaching methods, which enhanced children's mathematical skills and academic performance66. Similarly, a research in Uganda emphasized the importance of teachers' confidence, competence, and enthusiasm in teaching Numeracy, as they positively correlated with children's Numeracy achievement67.
On the quality of teacher-student interactions and the attitudes exhibited, a study in Nigeria highlighted that positive teacher-student interactions, characterized by warmth, support, and encouragement, were associated with higher academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers68. Furthermore, a research carried out in Kenya emphasized the significance of teachers' positive attitudes, patience, and individualized attention in fostering children's learning and academic success69. 
A study in Nigeria examined the impact of teacher-student interactions on children's language development70. The findings indicated that positive and supportive interactions between teachers and preschoolers significantly contributed to their English Language proficiency. Teachers who provided clear instructions, engaged in meaningful conversations, and provided constructive feedback created a conducive learning environment, leading to improved academic achievements in English Language. 
Another empirical study carried out in Ghana focused on the relationship between teacher-pupils interactions and Numeracy performance among preschoolers71. The results revealed that teachers who adopted interactive teaching strategies, such as hands-on activities, manipulatives, and peer collaboration, had a positive influence on children's Numeracy skills. These interactions promoted active engagement, problem-solving abilities, and conceptual understanding, leading to enhanced academic achievements in Numeracy.
A comparative study conducted in Zimbabwe and South Africa investigated the effects of teacher-pupils interactions on the academic achievements of preschoolers in both Literacy and Numeracy72. The findings highlighted the significance of responsive and stimulating interactions in promoting language and mathematical skills. Teachers who provided individualized attention, encouraged participation, and created a supportive learning environment fostered higher academic achievements in both subjects. 
Furthermore, the quality of teacher-pupils interactions can be influenced by factors such as teacher training and experience. A study carried out in Kenya examined the impact of teacher training on the quality of interactions and academic achievements of preschoolers73. The results indicated that teachers who had received specialized training in early childhood education exhibited more effective interactions with their pupils. These interactions were characterized by warmth, encouragement, and scaffolding, resulting in improved academic achievements in Literacy and Numeracy.
The classroom climate, influenced by teachers' attitudes and behaviours, has been identified as a significant factor affecting preschoolers' academic achievements. A study in Nigeria found that a positive classroom climate, characterized by a supportive and inclusive environment, contributed to enhanced academic performance in English Language and Numeracy62. Teachers' positive attitudes towards the subject matter, instructional methods, and student engagement were instrumental in creating such a conducive classroom climate.
The role of parental involvement in influencing the relationship between teacher attitudes and academic achievements cannot be overlooked. A study in Nigeria explored the influence of teacher attitudes and parental involvement on preschoolers' academic achievements in English Language and Arithmetic74. The findings revealed that when teachers demonstrated positive attitudes towards teaching, and parents actively supported and engaged in their children's learning, it positively impacted the children's academic performance. This highlights the significance of collaborative efforts between teachers and parents in creating an optimal learning environment for preschoolers.
A similar study was determined on the relationship between teachers’ attributes and students’ academic performance in public senior secondary schools in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State. The specific objectives were to determine the influence of Qualification on academic performance of students in public secondary schools in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria and to find out the influence of experience on students’ academic performance in public Secondary schools in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria. The null hypotheses stated were that - there is no significant relationship between teachers’ qualification and students’ academic performance in public secondary schools in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria and there is no significant relationship between teachers’ experience and students’ Academic performance in public secondary schools in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria. These two hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The study used correlation research design. The population of the study comprised of one thousand two hundred and thirty six (1,236) teachers in all the sixteen public senior secondary schools and thirty three thousand, six hundred and ninety nine (33,699) Senior Secondary School three (SSS 3) students between the year 2014 and 2018 in public senior secondary schools in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State. A simple random sampling technique was used to sample a fraction of four hundred and ninety five (495) teachers and thirteen thousand, four hundred and eighty (13,480) Senior Secondary School three (SSS 3) students. Academic performance of the students were determined using secondary sources which was obtained from their WAEC results in five (5) basic science subjects. Also, a self-developed questionnaires and profoma was used as instruments for collection of primary data. The questionnaire was subjected to content validity and also Cronbach’s Alpha statistical tool to determine the reliability of the instrument. Findings revealed that there is a significant positive relationship between teachers’ qualification and students’ academic performance in Public Senior Secondary Schools in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria. Another finding revealed that there is a significant positive relationship between teachers’ experiences and students’ academic performance in Public Senior Secondary Schools in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria. Based on the findings, it was concluded that teachers’ attributes affect the students’ academic performance positively. This implies that teachers’ attributes significantly affect the students’ academic performance in Maiduguri Metropolis, Borno State, Nigeria. Based on the findings, it was recommended that Government and Teaching Service Board should encourage and support teachers to obtain higher educational qualification as it found to be significantly related students’ academic performance; again, the Borno State Ministry of Education and Teaching Service Board should ensure that teachers with more experience are posted to higher classes since it is found to be significantly related to the senior secondary school students’ academic performance74.
A similar study was investigated on the influence of teachers’ factors on academic performance of Business Studies’ students in Edo State. Three research questions were raised with three corresponding hypotheses formulated and tested at alpha level of 0.05. The study utilized a correlational design and a total sample size of two thousand, three hundred and seventy four (2,374) Business Studies’ students and sixty five (65) Business Studies teachers were used for the study. Three instruments were developed by the researcher and they were all validated by experts and only Business Studies Achievement Test (BUSAT) was subjected to reliability and it yielded a co-efficient of 0.887. The data collected were analyzed using the Statistical Packages for Social Sciences (SPSS). The analysis yielded the following results among others: there is a significant relationship between teachers’ qualification and students’ academic performance in Business Studies; there is a significant relationship between teachers’ teaching experience and students’ academic performance in Business Studies and there is no significant relationship between teachers’ teaching strategy and students’ academic performance in Business Studies. Based on the findings and conclusion, the study recommended among others that: government should put in much effort in ensuring that right teacher factors are put in place for optimum performance of the students in Business Studies in the schools75.
A similar study was investigated to establish the influence of teacher related factors on students’ academic performance in Kiswahili composition in public secondary schools in Kisumu West Sub-County, Kenya. The study employed descriptive survey and correlation designs. Target population was one thousand, six hundred and twenty two (1,622) Form four students, fifty four (54) teachers of Kiswahili Language, thirty three (33) Heads of Department (HOD) and one (1) Sub-County Curriculum Support Officer (SCCSO). Purposive sampling technique was used to select a sample of forty eight (48) teachers, twenty nine (29) HOD and one (1) SCCSO. A sample size determination formula was used to select a sample of three hundred and ten (310) Form four students. Teacher and student questionnaire, HOD/SCCSO interview schedule and Kiswahili composition test were used for data collection. The study found a positive strong relationship between teachers’ related factors and students’ academic performance. It was concluded that an improvement in teacher related factors increased students’ academic performance in Kiswahili composition. On the basis of the study, it was therefore recommended that teachers should be constantly engaged in refresher courses, seminars and symposia to update their skills on Kiswahili language pedagogy so as to improve students’ academic performance; also, all teacher related factors must be strictly monitored in order to ensure that the right teachers are the ones teaching the students for optimum learning and performance outcomes76.
Another similar study was carried out to investigate the influence of teacher related factors on students’ academic performance in public secondary schools in Makueni Sub County, Makueni County. The study was focused on finding out how teacher related factors influence the students’ academic performance in secondary schools. The study was based on capital theory. The design that employed to carry out the study was the descriptive survey research design. The study targeted forty eight (48) form three students, fifty four (54) teachers and thirty six (36) form three parents from Makueni Sub County in Makueni County. Purposive sampling and simple random sampling technique was used in selection of the respondents. The researcher made use of questionnaires and interview guide to collect data. Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to analyze the data. The data collected was analyzed using various descriptive and inferential statistical methods such as mean, standard deviation, frequency and percentages via the Statistical Package for Social Sciences software. The results of the study revealed that frequent use of lecture method in teaching brought about poor academic performance. On the basis of this finding, it was therefore recommended that administrators should ensure teachers who are skilled with the use of right methodologies are employed; teachers should also be supervised in order to ensure that they use various teaching methods for quality teaching of the students; and teachers should be allowed to also attend workshops, seminars and conferences so as to become equipped with the current teaching approaches77.
A similar study was carried out to investigate the influence of teachers’ characteristics on students’ academic performance of Biology in secondary schools in Calabar Municipality of Cross River State, Nigeria. A survey research design was employed. Two instruments were used for data collection. These instruments were - Questionnaire and Achievement Test in Biology. Simple random sampling was employed to select one hundred and fifty (150) Senior Secondary School Two Biology students and five (5) teachers. Data collected were analyzed using One-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA). Three null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. The result of the investigation revealed that teacher characteristics such as teachers’ qualification and teachers’ years of teaching experience have a significant influence on students’ academic performance in Biology, while teacher characteristics such as teachers’ attitude did not influence students’ academic performance. Based on these findings, it was recommended that Government should put in place measures and incentives in order to encourage and motivate experience teachers in the school system; teachers should also be allowed to embark on continuous education to equip them in the area of teaching; teachers should also ensure that they have the right attitude towards teaching; and lastly, students should learn to be studious for their academic performance78.
A similar study was implemented on teacher variables and their relationship with academic performance of students in economics. The study was conducted in Shongom local government of Gombe State, Nigeria. The population for the study consisted of one hundred and fifty (150) economics teachers from all thirteen (13) senior secondary schools in Shongom Local Government Area of Gombe State, Nigeria. The reason for choosing Shongom LGA Gombe State was because of its usefulness to the research. Stratified random sampling technique was employed in selecting seven senior Secondary School in Shongom LGA Gombe State. Among the schools selected, three were Government school, three were private School, and one was a missionary School. About one hundred and eight (108) economics teachers in seven senior secondary schools mentions out of the total population of one hundred and fifty (150) were selected as sample for the study. Data for this study was collected from primary and secondary sources. Primary sources of data was obtained through the use of questionnaire while secondary source of data was obtained from the students’ academic record in the various selected schools. The questionnaire was validated by experts and also subjected to Cronbach’s alpha analysis for internal consistency of the instrument. The Cronbach’s alpha gave a correlation coefficient value of .874 which was considered reliable according to psychometric test for reliability interpretation. It was found out that, academic performance of students is significantly influenced by the effectiveness of the teachers with effective teacher classes performing better than their counterparts in the classes with ineffective teacher. It was also reported that the professional qualifications of teachers significantly and positively influence the academic performances of their students. It was also revealed that there is a significant relationship between teachers’ variables such as method of teaching, effectiveness, teacher qualification and students’ achievement in economics at the secondary schools in Shongom Local government area of Gombe State. Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that some variables like sex, experiences, qualifications, locations as well as population of the students should be considered before posting teachers by the concerned ministry of education bodies in the state79.
A study was investigated on the influence of teachers’ personality in terms of attitude on the academic achievement of chemistry students in Ekiti State, Nigeria. The research design used was survey design of the descriptive type of research. The sample size of two hundred (200) respondents was sampled for the study using simple random sampling technique to select public secondary schools across Ado, Ikole and Ikere Local Government Areas of Ekiti State. The respondents were drawn from fifty selected secondary schools with two chemistry teachers being selected from each school. The instrument for data collection for the study was a self-structured questionnaire. The split-half method of reliability was employed to ascertain the reliability of the instrument using Spearman Brown’s form Pearson Product Moment Correlation statistical analysis. A coefficient of 0.899 was obtained. Frequency counts and percentage were used to analyse the demographic characteristics of respondents to answer the research questions while the hypotheses were tested using inferential statistics of Correlation statistical analysis. The findings of the study showed that there was a significant positive correlation between teachers’ attitude and academic achievement of chemistry students4.
A closely identical study was examined on teachers' attitudes towards the teaching of basic science and technology and students' achievement in the subject at junior secondary school three in Ibadan metropolis. The study adopted a descriptive survey method. Data were collected from forty (40) basic science and technology teachers and one thousand, six hundred (1,600) students made up of one thousand and sixty (1,060) from Ibadan city and the remaining five hundred and forty (540) from Ibadan less city. The researcher used descriptive statistics and inferential statistics for this study. Three hypotheses were formulated and tested and two instruments were used for data collection in this study. The findings showed a positive disposition towards basic science and technology teaching and a significantly positive correlation between teachers' attitudes and students' achievement in basic science and technology. It is recommended that the government and all those concerned with education in the country should get more committed and invest more funds, time, and energy towards making teaching especially science and technology more attractive to teachers30.
An identical study was examined on teachers’ attitude as predictor of students' achievement in English Language in Ibadan Metropolis. A descriptive research design was adopted using forty-four (44) teachers and One thousand, seven hundred and sixteen (1,716) senior secondary school two students selected through random sampling technique. Three research instruments were used to generate data namely: Teachers' attitude to English Language teaching questionnaire, Teachers subject mastery scale and Literacy achievement test. The data collected were analysed using multiple regressive at 0.05 level of significance. Findings revealed a significant positive relationship between teachers’ attitude and students' achievement in Literacy in Ibadan Metropolis, Oyo State34.
A study was carried out on the need to provide empirical evidences and establish the relationship existing between teachers' attitude and students' achievement as well as the relationship between teacher-student and students' academic achievement in agricultural science in Abia State, Nigeria. Two specific objectives guided the study. Two research questions as well as two null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 level of significance. The study adopted correlational study design. The study was carried out in Abia state. The population of the study was nine thousand, nine hundred and sixty three (9,963) consisting of nine thousand, six hundred and ninety (9,690) students and two hundred and seventy three (273) teachers of agricultural science. The sample size of three hundred and thirty (330) respondents consisting of thirty (30) teachers and three hundred (300) students were selected and used for the study. A multistage sampling (simple random-purposive-simple random) procedure was adopted for this study. The study made use of two instruments for data collection; a questionnaire titled; Teacher Relationship and Attitude Questionnaire (TRAQ) structured on 4-point scale of 4=Highly Utilized (HU), 3=Utilized (U), 2=Averagely Utilized (AU) and 1=Not Utilized (NU) and a standardized agricultural science achievement test (AAT) adapted from 2018 WAEC agricultural science paper 2. The instruments were validated by three experts, two from the Department of Agricultural/Home-science Education and one from Department of Measurement and Evaluation in College of Education, Michael Okpara University of Agriculture, Umudike. The reliability of the instrument for the study was determined using split-half method of reliability which gave a reliability coefficient of 0.982 and 0.988 for the two instruments respectively. Three hundred and thirty (330) Copies of TRAQ and AAT were administered to the respondents but three hundred and twelve (312) copies of the administered instruments were retrieved representing 94.5% retrieval rate. The data collected were analyzed using Pearson Product Moment Correlation to answer research questions and linear regression to test the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. It was found out that there is a significant relationship between teachers' attitude and students' achievement as well as between teacher-student relationship and students' academic achievement in agricultural science. Based on the findings, it was recommended among others that teachers should know that their relationship with their students plays a vital role in the students' achievement. As a result, they should always create a good relationship with their students. Positive and negative reinforcement should only be utilized when and where necessary35.
A similar study examined how teachers’ attitude and morale correlates of students’ academic performance in Financial Accounting in senior secondary schools in Adamawa State, Nigeria. Three research questions and three hypotheses were formulated and tested at a significance level of 0.05. The study used correlational survey research design. The population of the study was one hundred and eighty seven (187) Financial Accounting Teachers. As a result of the relative small size of the population - one hundred and eighty seven (187), census sampling technique was adopted. The instrument used for the data collection was a structured questionnaire titled - “Financial Accounting Teachers’ Attitude and Morale in Senior Secondary School Questionnaire (FATAMSSSQ)” while the WASSCE results of Financial Accounting students for 2019 was obtained from the Ministry of Education, Yola to determine the mean score for academic performance. The instrument FATAMSSSQ was validated by three (3) experts (two from the department of Vocational Education and one from department of Physical Science Education) from the Modibbo Adama University of Technology, Yola. The instrument was also trial tested using Cronbach Alpha that showed a reliability co-efficient of 0.873. The data collected were analysed using Mean and Standard Deviation for answering the research questions; while Pearson’s Product Moment Correlation (PPMC) was employed to test hypotheses 1 and 2 with Multiple Regression Analysis to test hypothesis 3 at significance level of 0.05. The findings of the study include among others that there was a significant high positive relationship between teachers’ attitude and students’ academic performance in Financial Accounting in Senior Secondary Schools in Adamawa State, Nigeria. Also, that there was a significant high positive relationship between teachers’ morale and students’ academic performance in Financial Accounting in Senior Secondary Schools in Adamawa State, Nigeria. Similarly, teachers’ attitude and morale was revealed to significantly predict students’ academic performance in Financial Accounting. Thus, it was concluded that teachers’ attitude and morale correlate with students’ academic performance in Financial Accounting in Adamawa state, Nigeria. The study recommended among others that school authorities should organise various seminars and conferences on work ethics, in order to help reform teachers’ attitude in the class36.
An identical study was carried out to find out the teachers’ attitude towards using ICT in teaching Physics. The information needed was obtained through administering questionnaires to one hundred and forty eight (148) Physics teachers both in public and private secondary schools. Furthermore, the study was sought to find out the effect of using ICT on academic achievement of Secondary School Physics students in Mombasa County. To achieve this, an experiment was conducted involving one hundred and forty three (143) Form Two Physics students and one Physics teacher in a purposively selected secondary school. The quantitative data was derived by the use of Likert rating Scale while the experimental data was derived through pre-test and posttest using achievement test. The data gathered were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics such as mean, standard deviation, frequency, percentages and a two-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with the aid of the Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) software IBM version 20. The results of the study showed that students performed better in Physics when ICT was applied in the teaching of Physics which agrees with others researchers in literature. On the basis of these findings, it was concluded that it is necessary to ensure that teachers with the right attitude towards the usage of ICT are recruited for optimum performance of the students in Physics37.
A study was carried out to find out the influence of some teachers’ attitudes towards teaching profession on the perception of non-education under graduate students of private universities in Enugu State Metropolis of teaching profession. The population of the study consisted of all the three thousand, six hundred and forty one (3,641) non- education undergraduate students of both Godfrey Okoye and Caritas universities in Enugu. The sample size of three hundred and sixty (360) was employed for the study. The sample size was determined using Yamane’s (1964) statistical formula. Based on that, three hundred and sixty (360) copies of questionnaire were distributed to the respondents. The data collected were analysed using statistical package for social sciences (SPSS). The findings among others were that some teachers were incompetent in delivering their lessons, demanding money from students to pass them in their examination and befriending female students which negatively influence undergraduate students’ perception of teaching profession. It was concluded among other things some teachers’ negative attitude toward teaching profession and unethical behaviour exhibited by some teachers contributed a great extent to the poor perception of undergraduate students towards teaching profession. The recommendations made were that the teachers should be proud of their profession, prepare their lesson very well to show mastery of their subject matters and exhibit positive attitudes towards their profession so as to encourage students to be desirous of teaching profession38.
A similar study was investigated on teachers’ attitude towards teaching and students’ performance in English Language grammar in selected senior secondary schools in Osogbo metropolis, Osun State, Nigeria. The study adopted a descriptive research design of survey type to provide answers to two research questions. A total of twelve (12) teachers and three hundred (300) students were randomly selected from the six Government High Schools in Osogbo metropolis, covering Osogbo and Olorunda Local Government Areas in Osun State. Teacher Attitude Questionnaire (r=.889) and English Language Grammar Achievement Test (r=.874) were used in data collection. Data collected were analyzed using frequency counts, simple percentage and Pearson Product Moment Correlation. The findings of this study revealed that majority of the teachers who participated in the study had negative attitude towards the teaching profession. The findings also showed that teachers’ attitude towards teaching had a positive significant relationship with students’ academic achievement in English Language grammar. Based on the findings of the study, it was recommended that government at all levels should ensure prompt payment of teachers’ salary and other allowances for improved interest in and commitment to their work; only teachers who are passionate about teaching should be employed as teachers; and that the people should see teachers as indispensable elements in the development and sustenance of the society; hence, accord them necessary respect42.
A similar study of the descriptive-correlation type was carried out on the impact of teachers’ attitude towards profession on student’s academic achievement at secondary school level. The quantitative method was employed while the population consisted of one hundred and forty eight (148) boy’s school, one thousand, six hundred and forty nine (1,649) male teachers and thirty seven thousand, three hundred and twenty four (37,324) boys’ students at secondary school at district Peshawar and Charsadda. The cluster sampling technique was employed to select six hundred (600) male teacher and four hundred (400) boy’s students were selected in both districts. Teacher Attitude Towards the Profession Scale was developed to collect data for the study. It consisted of twenty two (22) items and the five scale Likert rating scale of strongly disagree to strongly agree. The questionnaire was subjected to face and content validity evidence while Cronbach’s alpha was used to determine the reliability coefficient of the questionnaire which gave a reliability coefficient value of .991. However, annual examination of class ten result from the Boards of Intermediate and Secondary Education Peshawar (BISEP) was used to determine the academic achievement of the students. Specifically, the average score of the student’s academic achievement. A thousand (1000) questionnaires were personally distributed to the respondents. Descriptive and Inferential statistical tools such as one sample t-test, Pearson correlation and regression were used for data analysis. These tools were used to test the hypotheses. Results showed that teachers’ attitude towards profession positively contributes to students’ academic achievement. It was concluded that teachers’ attitude towards their profession was significant predictor of students’ academic achievement. It was recommended on the basis of the findings that teachers should try as much as possible to develop the right attitude towards teaching for improved academic achievement of the students44.
A closely identical study was carried out to investigate the role of teachers’ attitude towards their profession in university students’ academic performance and classroom environment. Students and teachers at the University of Sargodha made up the population of the study. These participants were selected from the Department of Psychology from faculty of social sciences, Department of Statistics from faculty of sciences and Department of Communication and Media Studies from faculty of arts and humanities at the university. Data were collected online. Attitude scale towards teaching profession and Classroom environment scale were used to gather data for the research. Perceptions of teachers were recorded using Classroom environment scale and Teachers’ attitude scale, while student’s academic performance was measured through self-reported CGPA. Data were analyzed using mediation analysis via Statistical Package for Social Science Software version 22. It was concluded based on the results of the study that the mediating role of teachers’ attitude towards their profession in university Students’ academic performance and classroom environment was statistically significant. It was therefore recommended that students’ academic achievement may be made better by focusing on creating classroom environment that is more structured and well designed; secondly, all hands must be on deck in ensuring that teachers have the right attitude towards their profession for improved academic performance of the students at the various departments in the university; also, future studies using qualitative research approach should be conducted87.
A paper was carried out to investigate the impact of educator's attitudes on the academic performance of children in basic schools in the Hohoe Municipality. Teacher's attitude was estimated using the standard inventory which consists of seven particular components such as clarity, enthusiasm, interaction, organization, disclosure, speech, and rapport while academic performance of the children was estimated by their class score. Primary data was therefore used for teachers’ attitude while secondary data was used for children’s academic performance. By utilizing a stratified proportionate testing strategy, three hundred (300) students were chosen from structure basic institutions in Hohoe Municipality and a cross-sectional study was led to gauge the impact and to find the connection between factors. It was established from analysis that instructors' attitude has a significant association with the children’s academic performance. Of the seven components used to measure teachers’ attitude, it was revealed that five components (clarity, organization, disclosure, speech, and rapport) have a significant association with the children's academic performance while two components (enthusiasm and organization) have no association with the children's academic performance. However, a component (speech) was found to reveal distinction based on their (student's) sexual orientation88.
Another similar study was investigated on the impact of teacher professional attitudes on student accomplishment in our secondary schools, particularly in Taraba State's Wukari Local Government. The study used descriptive survey statistics to test the mean values of whether the influence of teacher profession improves teaching, method, and instructional materials. Three (3) research questions were developed to test the mean values of whether the influence of teacher profession enhances teaching, method, and instructional materials. The population of study consists of GDSS Wukari, MGGSS Wukari, Al -iman Wukari, GSS Wukari, and Great leaders’ secondary schools Wukari, which offered science and art subjects, and one hundred and fifteen (115) students were brought from each school and random sampling techniques were used, fourteen (14) questionnaires were used, and structured content validation was performed using Cronbach’ Alpha which was calculated to be 0.984. The mean value of 3.50 was accepted as the criteria. Using a five-point likert scale, the study indicated that a professional teacher may teach effectively by supplying items with good instructional materials, training, methods, and student achievement in Wukari, Taraba state which will improve via learning and listening to the teacher89.
A study is conducted to find out the factor related to teacher which may contribute to the students` achievement in mathematics. A sample of six hundred and five (605) students were drawn from fourteen (14) departments of different educational institutions in Peshawar, Khyber Pakhtunkhwa. Furthermore, the data was collected from students’ 5th semester academic records from the department of mathematics. Data gathered was subjected to statistical analysis using various statistical tools such as descriptive statistics (mean, standard deviation, frequency and percentages), t-test for independent sample, odd-ratio and binary logistic regression via Statistical Package for Social Science Software version 20. Findings revealed that teachers’ attitude has a high significant impact on students’ achievement in Mathematics. Findings also shows that teachers take interactive class, adopt positive attitude, use understandable language, motivate and provide teaching material contribute to students` academic achievement. It was recommended that teachers continue to develop and sustain positive attitudes towards teaching for improved academic performance of the students90.
A similar study investigated the influence of teachers’ attitude towards practical chemistry on students’ interest and achievement in senior secondary schools in Nasarawa State. The study adopted an ex post facto research design. The population of the study comprised of all Senior Secondary School Three (SSS3) students in all the public senior secondary schools in Nasarawa State, Nigeria. Four research questions guided the study and four null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using t-test statistics. Instruments such as Practical Chemistry Achievement Test (PCAT), Practical Chemistry Interest Scale (PCIS) and Teachers’ Attitude to Practical Chemistry Questionnaire (TAPCQ) were used for data collection. Kuder-Richardson twenty (KR-20) and Split-half reliability method were employed to determine the internal consistency of instrument, and their reliability indices were 0.972, 0.979 and 0.985 respectively. Multi-stage sampling technique was employed to select the sample. Simple percentage, mean, and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions, while the hypotheses were tested using t-test. The findings of the study revealed that teachers’ attitude towards practical chemistry had significant influence on male students’ interest in practical chemistry in Nasarawa State; that there was no significant influence in the interest of female students taught practical chemistry by teachers with positive attitude and those taught by teachers with negative attitude towards practical chemistry in Nasarawa State; there was on significant influence in the achievement of male and female students taught practical chemistry by teachers with positive attitude and their counterpart taught by teachers with negative attitude towards practical chemistry in Nasarawa State. It was recommended on the basis of the findings of the study that; in order to improve qualification of chemistry practicals, the numbers of learners in chemistry classrooms need to be reduced. This could be done by separating large classes into many small classes. This implies that more chemistry teachers be employed, more classrooms and laboratories built and equipped, an action which can be addressed by the ministry of education; also, for chemistry practicals to result in a significant positive impact on a students’ ability to learn both the desired practical skills and also the underlying theory, it is recommended that; male and female students should be encouraged to cooperatively learn as it will help to maintain and increase their positive attitude and interest towards chemistry practicals in secondary schools91.
A similar study was investigated on the influence of teachers’ attitude and that of the students on the academic achievement of student in basic science in secondary schools in Rivers State. The study adopted a survey research design to investigate whether the synergy of parents and students attitudes toward science subjects play a significant role in the achievement of the students in basic sciences. The population of the study comprised of all the students in all the secondary schools in the state. Two hundred (200) students were selected as the active participants through the stratified random sampling techniques. Three research questions guided the study while three null hypotheses were formulated and tested at 0.05 levels of significance. The study used self- structured instrument titled, Teachers/Students Science Attitude and Academic Achievement Questionnaires (TSAAAQ) for collection of data. The instrument was validated and the reliability of the instrument was tested using the Cronbach alpha coefficient. The result revealed that the major factors affecting students’ attitude towards science are categorized; positive and negative. The positive include interest; relevance; and the entrepreneurial skills while the negative included boredom and difficulties in the calculation involved. Furthermore, the study showed that teacher’s attitude plays significant roles in the students’ attitude towards basic science. The study also showed that there is a significant relationship between teacher’s attitudes and student attitude towards science and a significant relationship between teacher’s attitude and students’ academic achievement92.
An identical study was examined on the influence teachers’ attitude on student’s performance at grade six. A descriptive survey research design was employed. The sample of the study included eight (8) students and six (6) teachers of Government Girls high school attached with Government Elementary College of education (women) Hyderabad. The observational tool was used in preliminary visit for identification of students’ learning understanding. The researcher conducted the observation on checklist tool in order to find out the problems students face from teachers’ attitude. Then also use other tool that helps researcher to analyze the reasons behind teachers’ or student attitude that are affecting student’s performance. It was revealed that teachers’ attitude negatively affects students’ academic performance in grade six and they face problems of poor academic performance as a result of their teachers’ negative attitude in the study area93.
An identical study was examined on teachers' attitudes towards the teaching of basic science and technology and students' achievement in the subject at junior secondary school three in Ibadan metropolis, Oyo state. The study adopted a descriptive survey method. Data were collected from forty (40) basic science and technology teachers and one thousand, six hundred (1,600) students. These students included one thousand and sixty (1,060) from Ibadan city and the remaining five hundred and forty (540) from Ibadan less city. Questionnaires and achievement tests were the instruments that were used to obtain data for the study. The data collected were subjected to descriptive statistics and inferential statistics such as mean, standard deviation, frequency and percentages and Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC). Three research questions and (3) hypotheses were formulated. The hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance. The findings showed a positive disposition towards basic science and technology teaching and a significantly positive correlation between teachers' attitudes and students' achievement in basic science and technology. It was recommended that the government and all those concerned with education in the country should get more committed and invest more funds, time, and energy towards making teaching especially science and technology more attractive to teachers94.
A related study was carried out on the relationship between teachers’ attitude and students’ academic achievement in college level. A quasi experimental design was adopted to carry out the study. The data were collected from instruments such as questionnaires and achievement test. Data gathered were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics such as mean, standard deviation, independent samples t-test, analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Pearson Product moment correlation. The inferential statistics were used to test the two hypotheses that were formulated. The findings showed that the attitude of teachers in the study at the college level has a significant effect on the achievement of students in science subject. The implication of the finding was that if teachers show positive attitude towards the teaching, the achievement of students will be better than what is present currently at the colleges. It was therefore recommended that teachers should try as much as possible in developing the right attitude towards teaching for improved academic achievement95.

2.3.2 	Professional Qualifications and Academic Achievement  
An empirical studies explored the influence of teachers' professional qualifications on preschoolers' academic achievement and it investigated the relationship between teachers' educational qualifications and children's early English Language skills75. The findings revealed that teachers with higher levels of education had a significant positive impact on children's literacy development. Similarly, a study examined the association between teachers' professional qualifications and mathematics achievement among preschoolers59. The results indicated that teachers' specialized training in mathematics positively influenced children's mathematical skills and performance.
Several studies highlight the significance of teacher training and professional development programmes in shaping teacher attitudes. For example, a study in Nigeria emphasized the importance of continuous professional development opportunities to enhance teachers' pedagogical knowledge and instructional practices, leading to more positive attitudes towards teaching76. Additionally, a research in Zambia revealed that teachers who had access to relevant and high-quality professional development programmes exhibited more positive attitudes and increased job satisfaction77.
A study was conducted in Nigeria which examined the relationship between teachers' professional qualifications and their competence in delivering quality instruction to preschoolers78. The findings revealed that teachers with higher levels of professional qualifications demonstrated greater competence in areas such as curriculum implementation, instructional strategies, and classroom management. This suggests that professional qualifications contribute to enhancing teacher’s competence, thereby positively influencing the learning outcomes of preschoolers. 
Continuous professional development (CPD) programmes have emerged as a means to enhance teacher competence in early childhood education. A study in Kenya investigated the effects of a CPD programme on teacher competence and its subsequent impact on children's learning outcomes79. The findings indicated that teachers who participated in the programme exhibited improved competence in areas such as child development, pedagogical knowledge, and assessment practices. This increased competence translated into enhanced academic achievements among preschoolers, highlighting the importance of ongoing professional development in improving teachers’ effectiveness.
A study was conducted in Nigeria which examined the relationship between teachers' pedagogical knowledge, skills, and their competence in teaching preschoolers80. The findings revealed that teachers with a deep understanding of child development, age-appropriate instructional strategies, and effective classroom management demonstrated higher levels of competence. This competence positively influenced the academic achievements of preschoolers, particularly in language development and mathematical concepts.
The quality of teacher competence is also influenced by factors such as teaching experience and motivation. A study conducted in Nigeria explored the relationship between teachers' years of experience, motivation, and their competence in early childhood education81. The findings indicated that experienced and motivated teachers exhibited higher levels of competence, which significantly correlated with improved academic achievements among preschoolers. This suggests that beyond professional qualifications, factors such as experience and motivation contribute to teacher’s competence and its subsequent impact on children's learning outcomes. 
The availability of adequate resources and supportive working environments also play a role in enhancing teacher competence and the resulting effects on academic achievements. A study carried out in Nigeria examined the influence of resource provision and working conditions on teacher competence in early childhood education82. The findings revealed that teachers who had access to adequate teaching materials and worked in conducive environments demonstrated higher levels of competence. These competent teachers were better able to facilitate effective learning experiences and contribute to improved academic achievements among preschoolers.
Collaborative professional learning communities have been found to positively impact teacher competence in early childhood education. A study in Kenya explored the effects of collaborative professional learning communities on teacher competence and subsequent student outcomes83. The findings revealed that teachers who participated in collaborative professional learning communities experienced increased competence in various areas, such as pedagogical practices and curriculum implementation. This enhanced competence contributed to improved academic achievements among preschoolers, highlighting the significance of collaborative learning and peer support in enhancing teacher effectiveness.
Several empirical studies have investigated the effects of teachers' professional qualifications on their attitudes toward teaching in early childhood education. A study conducted in Nigeria explored the relationship between teachers' level of education and their attitudes toward teaching84. The findings revealed that teachers with higher levels of professional qualifications, such as a Bachelor's or Master's degree in early childhood education, exhibited more positive attitudes toward their profession. These teachers demonstrated greater enthusiasm and commitment to their roles, fostering a conducive learning environment for preschoolers and positively impacting their academic achievements.
An empirical study carried out in Zimbabwe investigated the effects of teachers' specialised training in early childhood education on their attitudes toward teaching85. The results indicated that teachers who had undergone specific training in early childhood pedagogy and curriculum development showed more favorable attitudes toward teaching preschoolers. Their specialized knowledge and skills contributed to the implementation of developmentally appropriate teaching practices, resulting in improved engagement and academic outcomes among young learners. 
The role of continuous professional development (CPD) in shaping teachers' attitudes toward teaching has also been explored in the African context. A study conducted in Nigeria examined the impact of a CPD programme on teachers' attitudes toward early childhood education86. The findings revealed that teachers who participated in the CPD programme reported more positive attitudes toward teaching. The programme provided them with opportunities to enhance their skills, knowledge, and teaching practices, leading to increased job satisfaction and a sense of efficacy in their teaching roles. 
A comparative study conducted in Malawi and Zambia examined the effects of national policies and regulations on teachers' professional qualifications and their attitudes toward teaching87. The results indicated that countries with supportive policies and incentives for teachers to acquire higher qualifications had a positive influence on their attitudes. Teachers in these countries perceived teaching as a valued profession, leading to a higher level of commitment and dedication to their students' learning outcomes.
It is essential to recognize that teachers' attitudes toward teaching can also be influenced by their experiences in the classroom. A study conducted in Nigeria explored the impact of teaching experience on teachers' attitudes88. The findings revealed that experienced teachers with higher qualifications exhibited more positive attitudes toward teaching compared to their less-experienced counterparts. This suggests that a combination of professional qualifications and teaching experience can significantly shape teachers' attitudes and contribute to better educational outcomes for preschoolers.
Moreover, the quality of teacher training institutions and their curriculum offerings can affect the attitudes of teachers in early childhood education. A study carried out in Nigeria investigated the relationship between the quality of teacher training programmes and teachers' attitudes toward their profession89. The results showed that teachers who graduated from reputable and well-structured teacher training institutions displayed more positive attitudes toward teaching, underscoring the importance of quality education in fostering positive teacher attitudes and competence. These empirical studies shed light on the significant impact of professional qualifications on teachers' attitudes toward teaching in the context of Africa and Nigeria. The findings underscore the importance of continuous professional development, specialized training, national policies, teaching experience, and the quality of teacher training institutions in shaping positive teacher attitudes and ultimately enhancing the quality of early childhood education.
Several empirical studies have explored the relationship between teacher’s professional qualifications and the academic achievements of preschoolers in Literacy and Numeracy. A study conducted in Nigeria investigated the impact of teacher qualifications on children's language and mathematical skills90. The findings revealed a significant positive association between teachers' educational qualifications and preschoolers' academic achievements in both English Language and Arithmetic. Teachers with higher levels of education and specialized training in early childhood education demonstrated more effective instructional strategies, resulting in improved academic outcomes. 
Similarly, a study conducted in Ghana examined the influence of teacher professional qualifications on the academic achievements of preschoolers in English Language and Arithmetic91. The results indicated that teachers with formal qualifications in early childhood education exhibited higher competence in delivering effective instruction. These teachers possessed a deeper understanding of language and mathematical concepts, utilized appropriate teaching strategies, and provided meaningful learning experiences, which contributed to enhanced academic achievements in both subjects. 
In the African context, the importance of teacher professional qualifications is further emphasized by cultural and contextual factors. A study in Zimbabwe explored the impact of teacher qualifications on the academic achievements of preschoolers from different cultural backgrounds92. The findings highlighted that teachers who possessed cultural competency and an understanding of diverse learning needs promoted inclusive and equitable learning environments. These teachers effectively incorporated cultural elements into their instructional practices, resulting in improved academic achievements in Literacy and Numeracy. 
Additionally, the quality of teacher professional development programmes can play a crucial role in enhancing teacher competencies and subsequently influencing academic achievements. A study carried out in Nigeria investigated the effects of a professional development programme on teachers' instructional practices and preschoolers' academic achievements93. The results showed that the programme positively influenced teachers' knowledge, skills, and attitudes towards teaching Literacy and Numeracy. As a result, there was a significant improvement in preschoolers' academic achievements in both subjects. 
Furthermore, the ongoing professional development and continuous improvement of teachers are vital for maintaining high-quality education in preschool settings. A study conducted in Nigeria examined the relationship between teacher professional development and academic achievements of preschoolers94. The findings revealed that teachers who engaged in regular professional development activities, such as workshops, seminars, and collaborative learning opportunities, demonstrated increased instructional effectiveness. These teachers implemented research-based strategies, utilized appropriate assessment methods, and employed innovative teaching techniques, leading to enhanced academic achievements in Literacy and Numeracy. Teachers with higher educational qualifications, specialized training in early childhood education, cultural competence, and access to quality professional development opportunities contribute to improved academic outcomes in the African context.
A study explored the impact of socioeconomic status on preschoolers' academic performance95. The findings indicated that children from higher socioeconomic backgrounds demonstrated better academic achievements in Literacy and Numeracy compared to their counterparts from lower socioeconomic backgrounds. This suggests that socioeconomic factors play a significant role in shaping academic outcomes among preschoolers. 
Additionally, parental involvement has been identified as a key factor influencing academic achievements. A study carried out in Nigeria investigated the relationship between parental involvement and preschoolers' academic performance in English Language and Arithmetic96. The results revealed a positive association between parental involvement, including activities such as reading with children at home and engaging in educational discussions, and improved academic achievements. Parental support and involvement in children's learning processes contribute to their language development and mathematical skills.
The quality of early childhood education programmes also plays a crucial role in academic achievements among preschoolers. A study conducted in Nigeria examined the influence of the learning environment on preschoolers' academic performance97. The findings revealed that a conducive learning environment characterized by well-trained teachers, appropriate teaching materials, and engaging instructional approaches positively impacted children's academic achievements in Literacy and Numeracy. High-quality early childhood education programmes provide a solid foundation for academic success.
Furthermore, instructional strategies employed by teachers significantly influence preschoolers' academic achievements. A study conducted in Nigeria explored the relationship between teaching methods and preschoolers' academic performance in English Language and Arithmetics98. The results indicated that teachers who utilized interactive and hands-on teaching strategies, such as play-based learning and manipulative activities, enhanced children's language and mathematical skills. These student-centered approaches foster active engagement and promote deeper understanding. 
The availability and utilization of educational resources are crucial factors in academic achievements. A study carried out in Nigeria examined the impact of educational resources on preschoolers' academic performance99. The findings indicated that access to books, learning materials, and technology-enhanced resources positively influenced children's language and Numeracy abilities. Adequate provision of educational resources in preschool settings supports children's cognitive development and promotes academic achievements. Socioeconomic status, parental involvement, the quality of early childhood education programmes, effective instructional strategies, and the availability of educational resources all contribute to children's academic success.
	A study was done to investigate the influence of teacher’s subject matter knowledge on students’ academic achievement in Kiswahili language. This study was guided by Teachers’ Efficacy theory. The study was conducted in Kathonzweni Sub County, Kenya. The target population comprised of sixty (60) Kiswahili teachers and thirty nine (39) principals in all the thirty nine (39) public secondary schools in the Sub County. The sample size was all the thirty nine (39) principals and sixty (60) Kiswahili hence Census Survey. Questionnaires for principals and teachers were used as instruments of data collection. The objective of the study was; to establish the influence of teacher’s subject matter knowledge on students’ academic achievement in Kiswahili language in public secondary schools in the Sub County. Both questionnaires were piloted for reliability and yielded on Cronbach’s Alpha Coefficient of 0.833 for principal’s questionnaire and 0.938 for teachers’ questionnaire. The data collected was quantitatively analyzed using Statistical package of Social Sciences (SPSS). Pearson Correlation was employed to establish relationships between the variables. The findings showed that teachers’ subject matter knowledge had significant influence on students’ achievement on Kiswahili language9.
A research work was carried out to study the effects of teacher subject mastery on the academic performance of secondary school students in Jalingo L.G.A. The main objective of the study was to: determine the effect of teacher subject mastery on the academic performance of secondary school students in selected secondary schools in Jalingo, and their involvement in examination malpractice. Data were collected using Questionnaire. Five (5) schools were sampled, in each of the schools, ten (10) teachers were selected to participate in the study, making a total number of fifty (50) teachers in all. The data collected in this study were analyzed through descriptive and inferential statistics. The data collected were analyzed using frequency counts, simple percentage, mean, standard deviation and Pearson product moment correlation. The mean and standard deviation were used to provide answers to the research questions. The hypothesis was tested at 0.05 level of significance. The study revealed that subject mastery significantly affects the academic performance of secondary school students in Jalingo. It was recommended on the basis of the finding that continuous training workshops and seminars should be organised for practicing teachers; school administrators should devise a means to identify and tackle weaknesses in teachers' subject knowledge; and subject mastery should be a criterion for recruitment of teachers in secondary schools12.
A closely related study was investigated on the influence of teachers’ competence on students’ academic performance in public senior secondary schools in Ikot Ekpene and Essien Udim Local Government Areas of Akwa Ibom State. Two objectives and two null hypotheses guided the study. The total population consisted of thirty two thousand, three hundred and three (32,303) students consisting of fourteen thousand, six hundred and thirty six (14,636) males and seventeen thousand, six hundred and sixty seven (17,667) females from nineteen (19) Public Senior Secondary Schools in Ikot Ekpene and Essien Udim Local Government Areas of Akwa Ibom State. A sample size of three hundred and twenty three (323) students consisting of one hundred and fifty four (154) males and one hundred and sixty nine (169) females was derived using Taro Yamane’s formula. The instrument for the study was a self-structured questionnaire titled - “Influence of Teachers’ Competence on Students’ Academic Performance Questionnaire” which was on a four-point rating scale of Very High Extent, High Extent, Low Extent and Very Low Extent and was validated by experts in the Departments of Measurement and Evaluation and Educational Management. The instrument was pre and post-tested using a pilot sample size of ten (10) teachers and a reliability index of 0.970 was obtained using the test-re-test reliability method. Mean and standard deviation were used to answer the research questions, while the z-test was employed in testing the formulated null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. The major findings were that teacher’s subject content knowledge and pedagogical skills influence students’ academic performance in public senior secondary schools. Based on the findings, it was recommended that teachers should be encouraged to go for both long term and short term training to boost their qualification in subject content knowledge teaching skills in senior secondary schools. Government should also ensure adequate selection of competent and qualified teachers to teach in all senior secondary schools31.
Another similar study was investigated on the influence of students’ perception of teachers’ subject mastery and classroom management on students’ academic performance in chemistry in Calabar Municipality, Cross River State, Nigeria. The design of the study was descriptive survey while the population consisted of all Senior Secondary two (SS11) students in the area of study. The sample was two hundred (200) SS2 students who were composed through simple and stratified random sampling technique from the population. Relevant data for answering the two hypotheses were collected from the sample through the administration of Students’ Perception of Teachers’ Attitude to Work Questionnaire (SPTAWQ) on them. The Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient of sections B and C of the instrument were .783 and .884 respectively. Two hypotheses were tested with One-way Analysis of Variance statistics and the result showed significant positive influence of students’ perception of subject mastery and classroom management on students’ academic performance. It was therefore recommended that teachers who have mastered their subject should be recruited. Furthermore, teachers should be properly trained by engaging them in seminars, workshops and conferences so as to enable them master their craft for improved academic achievement of the students32.
A similar study was examined on teachers’ content knowledge as predictor of students' achievement in English Language in Ibadan Metropolis Methodology: Descriptive research design was adopted using forty-four (44) teachers and One thousand seven hundred and sixteen (1716) senior secondary two students selected through random sampling technique. Three research instruments were used to generate data namely: Teachers' Attitude to English Language Teaching Questionnaire, Teachers Subject Mastery Scale and English Language Achievement Test. The data collected were analysed using multiple regressive at 0.05 level of significance. Results indicated that there is a significant positive relationship between teachers' subject mastery and students' achievement34.
A similar study was examined on the relationship between teachers’ subject mastery and questioning behaviour and students’ achievement in English Language grammar in the Gambia. The descriptive survey research design was employed to carry out the study. The sampled respondents for the study comprised of three hundred (300) students and ten (10) English Language teachers from four senior secondary schools in Kanifing Municipal Council. Two research instruments were used and the data were analysed using inferential statistics such as Pearson Product Moment Correlation (PPMC). The result of the investigation showed that independent variables predicted students’ achievement in English Language grammar. Teachers’ subject mastery and questioning behaviour contributed significantly to students’ achievement in English Language grammar in the Gambia. On the basis of findings, it was recommended that educational stakeholders in the nation should always ensure that there is regular training of in-service and pre-service English Language teachers on subject mastery and questioning behaviour in the ESL classrooms in order to make sure that the academic achievement of the students are improved80.
A closely related study was carried out on the influence of social studies teachers’ subject matter mastery on students’ academic performance in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The study had one objective, one research question, and one null hypothesis. The objective was to determine the influence of social studies teachers’ subject matter mastery on students’ academic performance in Kaduna State, Nigeria. The study covered only social studies teachers within the three (3) senatorial zones of Kaduna State, namely zone one (1) Northern Kaduna, zone two (2) Kaduna Central and zone three (3) Southern Kaduna. The study reviewed related literature on constructivist theory, and some empirical studies. The study adopted descriptive survey design. Two thousand, two hundred and seventy one (2,271) social studies teachers of public secondary schools formed the population of the study. A total of three hundred (300) social studies teachers selected from thirty (30) public secondary schools were sampled based on stratified sampling technique. The study adopted the stratified sampling technique. The instrument used to collect data was a fixed response questionnaire designed by the researcher. Frequency and percentages were used in analyzing the respondents’ opinions, while one sample t-test was employed to test the hypothesis at P<0.05 level of significance for acceptance or rejection and the hypothesis was rejected. The findings revealed that, social studies teachers’ mastery of the subject matter have positive influence on the findings. It was recommended that focus should be made on organizing workshops on subject matter knowledge/mastery so as to solve the problem of subject of matter mastery81.
A similar paper was focused on teachers’ content and pedagogical content knowledge on students’ achievement in algebra. Using a test re-test quasi- experimental design with a 3x3x2x2 factorial matrix, about four hundred and twenty one (421) senior secondary school two students and twelve (12) mathematics teachers were purposively sampled from eight (8) public and four (4) private schools in Education District five of Lagos State. Three instruments (questionnaires) were used for data collection. The questionnaires were subjected to face and content validity evidence and also Gutman’s split half reliability method using Spearman Brown reliability coefficient. The Spearman Brown reliability coefficient gave values of 0.977, 0.879 and 0.981 respectively for the three questionnaires. These values were interpreted as reliable based on Psychometric test. Data were analysed using graphs and inferential statistic such as ANCOVA. The results revealed that all categories of the subject were equally affected by teachers’ content and pedagogical content knowledge in algebraic achievement after exposure to teacher’ content knowledge. However, it was indicated that students were not equally affected by teachers’ content and pedagogical content knowledge in algebraic achievement test. On the other hand, it was shown that gender has no significant effect on students’ achievement in algebra after exposure to teachers’ content and pedagogic knowledge. Furthermore, results showed that school type has no significant effect on students’ achievement in algebra after exposure to teacher’ content and pedagogic knowledge. Also, it was revealed that there is no significant interaction effect of content and pedagogical knowledge, gender and school type on students’ achievement in algebra. In view of the findings, it was recommended that teachers of Mathematics, with in-depth knowledge of the subject who are well-groomed in teaching pedagogy should be allowed to teach algebra in schools82.
	A similar study was carried out using structural equation modeling to determine the relationship between teachers’ mastery of subject knowledge and students’ academic performance with mediating effect of teachers’ commitment. A quantitative research approach was employed to determine the relationship among the three variables. Four hundred (400) teachers were selected through stratified random sampling technique. Structural equal modeling (SEM) analysis was employed to test the data fitness in with constructs formulated in the model. Based on the findings of the study, there was direct and significant relationship between teachers’ mastery of subject knowledge and students and academic performance. Also, teacher commitment was able to mediate on the relationship between teachers’ mastery of subject knowledge and students’ academic performance. It was recommended based on the findings that schools should be ensure that their teachers’ level of knowledge in subject matter is improved upon by providing them with in-service training85.
Another very similar study was investigated on the predictive value of Teachers’ Depth of Subject Content Knowledge and Depth of Pedagogical Knowledge on Students’ Academic Achievement in English Language and Mathematics. Specifically, the study investigated which category of teachers (B.Ed./B.Sc.Ed./B.A.Ed.; PGDE; or B.A./B.Sc) had the deepest Depth of Subject Content Knowledge; the deepest Depth of Pedagogical Knowledge; the deepest Depth of Subject Content and Professional Knowledge; and the predictive ability of Depth of Subject Content and Professional Knowledge for Students’ Academic Achievement. The sample comprised seventy-eight English Language and Mathematics teachers from thirty-two randomly selected secondary schools in Kwara State; and the intact SS II classes taught by the teachers. Quantitative data were collected through tests, observations and vignettes; and analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Findings showed that teachers with B.Sc. demonstrated the deepest Depth of Subject Content Knowledge, Depth of Pedagogical Knowledge and Depth of Subject Content and Professional Knowledge. Also, pedagogical and subject content knowledge of teachers were found to be significant predictors of Students’ Academic Achievement. Significant differences were observed between the Depth of Subject Content Knowledge and Depth of Pedagogical Knowledge of the English Language and Mathematics teachers in favour of Mathematics teachers. Similarly, students’ performance in English Language was lower than that of Mathematics, though not statistically significant. These findings raised concerns of profound implications for teachers’ education curriculum in Nigeria86.

2.4	Conceptual Model	

School Type
•	Private School
•	Public School

Academic Achievement in English and Numeracy
•	Level of Achievement in Literacy and Numeracy Achievement test

Teachers’ Attitude
•	Teacher-student Relationship, 
•	Instructional Methods; and 
•	Classroom Climate

Professional Qualification
•	Educational qualification:  Level of education; 
•	Years of experience; and 
•	Continuing Professional Development

Independent Variables				

Dependent Variable
Ho2

Ho1
				   		
Ho2

Moderating Variable

Ho3

Figure 2.1: Conceptual Model on Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications as Predictors of Academic Achievement in Literacy and Numeracy
Source:      Researcher, 2023

The conceptual model above proposes that teachers' attitudes towards teaching and their professional qualifications directly influence the academic achievement of preschoolers in Literacy and Numeracy. It is based on the assumption that teachers' attitudes towards teaching and their level of expertise significantly influence their instructional practices and interactions with students.
This model showed that teachers' attitudes towards teaching are influenced by several factors, including their beliefs about the importance of early childhood education, their motivation to teach, their pedagogical approaches, and their perception of the role of the teacher in facilitating children's learning. Teachers' professional qualifications also, play an important role in shaping the instructional practices and attitude in teaching Literacy and Numeracy to preschoolers. The model suggests that teachers' educational background, training, certification, and ongoing professional development opportunities influence their knowledge of subject matter, instructional strategies, and classroom climate. The model proposes that teachers' attitudes towards teaching mediate the relationship between their professional qualifications and preschoolers' academic achievement. Teachers' positive attitudes towards teaching are likely to result in more effective instructional practices, increased student engagement, and improved academic outcomes. 
	Further, the model showed the moderating variables of school type. This is to enable the researcher to determine if school difference has influence on teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on the academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy of preschoolers in private schools and public schools. 
Additionally, the model suggests that there may be a reciprocal relationship between teachers' attitudes, professional qualifications, and preschoolers' academic achievement. It posits that as teachers' attitudes towards teaching improve and their professional qualifications increase, there is a potential for enhanced academic achievement among preschoolers. 

2.5	Summary of Literature Reviewed 
Several studies have highlighted the importance of teachers' attitudes towards teaching in influencing the academic achievement of preschoolers. Positive attitudes, such as enthusiasm, dedication, and belief in students' potential, have been found to contribute to better student outcomes1, 3. The professional qualifications of teachers play a crucial role in their effectiveness as educators. Studies have shown that teachers with higher levels of education, specialised training in early childhood education, and relevant certifications are more likely to employ effective instructional strategies and create engaging learning environments2, 5. 
In the African and Nigerian context, socioeconomic factors, cultural diversity, language barriers and school type can impact teachers' attitudes and the academic achievement of preschoolers. Understanding and addressing these contextual factors are essential for promoting positive learning outcomes4, 6. The relationship between teachers' attitudes and academic achievement is complex and multidirectional. While teachers' attitudes can influence students' motivation, engagement, and self-esteem, academic achievements can also shape teachers' perceptions and attitudes towards their teaching practices7, 9. Studies have emphasized the significance of teacher-pupil interactions in fostering academic achievement. Positive and supportive interactions, including effective communication, individualized attention, and scaffolding, have been associated with improved learning outcomes in both Literacy and Numeracy 8, 10.
Literature also showed that the level of teachers' professional qualifications can impact their instructional approaches and effectiveness in teaching Literacy and Numeracy to preschoolers. Teachers with specialised knowledge and skills in these subject areas are better equipped to deliver targeted instruction and support student progress11, 13. Factors such as parental involvement, school resources, and the availability of professional development opportunities for teachers also influence the relationship between teachers' attitudes, professional qualifications, and academic achievement12, 14. 
The reviewed literature underscores the need for comprehensive teacher training programmes that focus on developing positive attitudes, enhancing subject-specific knowledge, and promoting effective instructional strategies. Continuous professional development initiatives should be tailored to address the specific needs of preschool teachers in the Nigerian and African context. Collaborative efforts among teachers, parents, and policymakers are crucial for creating supportive educational environments that foster positive attitudes and maximize the academic achievement of preschoolers in Literacy and Numeracy.
Further research is needed to explore the specific mechanisms through which teachers' attitudes and professional qualifications influence academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers in Nigeria. Longitudinal studies and intervention programmes can provide valuable insights into effective strategies for improving educational outcomes in early childhood settings19, 20. 
Academic achievement is important because it is strongly linked to the positive outcomes that is value. Adults who are academically successful and with high levels of education are more likely to be employed, have stable employment, have more employment opportunities than those with less education and earn higher salaries, are more likely to have health insurance, are less dependent on social assistance, are less likely to engage in criminal activity, are more active as citizens and charitable volunteers and are healthier and happier. Academic success is important because working people will need higher levels of education to tackle the technologically demanding occupations of the future.
Academically successful adolescents have higher self-esteem, have lower levels of depression and anxiety, are socially inclined, and are less likely to abuse alcohol and engage in substance abuse. Positive self-esteem and self-confidence are critical factors in commitment to academic achievement. Educationalists, instructors, and researchers have long been interested in exploring variables contributing effectively for quality of achievement of learners. The reviews enlighten that the academic achievement of students heavily depends upon the school personnel (the school management, teachers, and class assistants) they should provide help and support to students for the quality of their academic achievement. There is a range of factors that determine the quality of academic achievement of students, but the influence of teachers’ attitude and professional qualification cannot be under emphasized.

Endnotes
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66.	S. A. Aniah, A. I. Anashie, O. O. Offem & G. I. Ushie, Teachers' Attitudes to Work and Effective Teaching of in English Language in Primary Schools in Akpabuyo Local Government Area of Cross River State, Nigeria. Global Journal of Educational Research, Vol. 21(2) 2022, 143-148. ISSN: 1596-6224. Doi: https://dx.doi.org/10.4314/gjedr.v21i2.7   

67.	A. Isah & U. Galadim, Influence of Mathematics Teachers’ Attitude on Academic Achievement of NCE Students in Teaching and Learning of Mathematics at Shehu Shagari College of Education Sokoto. International Academy Journal of Educational Technology and Research, 8(8), 2023, 01-08. ISSN: 2382-9031. Doi: 27214253871881. https:// arcnjounals.org/index.php

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69.	P. O. Abah & M. U. Asogwa, Teacher-Student Interactions and Academic Achievement of Preschool Children in Enugu Urban, Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 11(14), 2020, 33-41.

70.	E. Goktas & M. Kaya, The Effects of Teacher Relationships on Student Academic Achievement: A Second Order Meta-Analysis. Participatory Educational Research (PER), 10(1), 2023, 275-289. ISSN: 2148-6123. https://dx.doi.org/10.17275/per.23.15.10.1

71.	T. O. Adeyemi & S. Olatundun, Teacher-child interactions and language development in Nigerian preschool classrooms. Journal of Early Childhood Research, 16(3), 2018, 270-285.

72.	B. O. Ogunbowale & O. O. Adesope, Teacher-Pupil Interactions and Arithmetic Performance of Preschool Children in Ghana. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 33(4), 2019, 512-526.

73.	M. Sibanda & B. N. Ngwenya, Teacher-Child Interactions and Academic Performance in Preschools in Zimbabwe and South Africa. Early Child Development and Care, 190(11), 2020, 1792-1806.
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75.	S. A. Aderibigbe, V. Z. Abang & D. J. Daniel, Teachers’ Attitude Toward the Use of Information and Communication Technology for Secondary School Students with Special Needs in Southwest Nigeria. 2021. 
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76.	M. Hafeez, Impact of Teachers’ Training on Interest and Academic Achievements of Students by Multiple Teaching Methods. Pedagogical Research, 6(3), 2021, em0102. e-ISSN: 2468-4929. https://doi.org/10.29333/pr/11088.

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78.	A. Akakandelwa & J. Phiri, Factors Affecting Teacher Attitudes towards Teaching: A Case of Secondary Schools in Zambia. International Journal of Education, Learning, and Development, 7(3), 2019, 48-64.

79.	O. A. Adebayo & S. O. Olatunde, Influence of Professional Qualification On Teachers' Competence In Early Childhood Education. Journal of Early Childhood Education Research, 6(2), 2017, 252-267.

80.	G. W. Nyagah & M. O. Nyakwara, Effects of Teacher Professional Development on Early Childhood Teacher Competence and Children's Learning Outcomes In Kenya. International Journal of Education and Research, 7(4), 2019, 167-178.

81.	L. B. Ajayi & O. J. Jegede, Pedagogical Content Knowledge and Competence as Correlates of Teachers' Effectiveness in Teaching Early Childhood Education. Journal of Education and Practice, 9(20), 2018, 22-32.

82.	N. K. Amadi & C. I. Amadi, Teachers' Years of Experience, Motivation and Competence as Determinants of Preschool Children's Academic Achievement. Journal of Education and Practice, 7(20), 2016, 57-62.

83.	O. A. Adeniji & O. M. Ogunlade, Resource Provision and Working Conditions as Determinants of Teacher Competence in Early Childhood Education. International Journal of Academic Research in Progressive Education and Development, 8(1), 2019, 355-367.

84.	G. M. Mbarati & M. E. Ondigi, Effects of Collaborative Professional Learning Communities on Teacher Competence and Student Outcomes in Early Childhood Education in Kenya. Journal of Education and Practice, 11(13), 2020, 93-104.
85.	N. S. Okoye & V. A. Anyikwa, The Influence of Teachers' Level of Education on their Attitudes toward Teaching in Early Childhood Education in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 9(20), 2018, 10-16.

86.	M. Moyo & K. Chinyoka, Effects of Specialized Training on Teachers' Attitudes toward Teaching in Early Childhood Education in Zimbabwe. Journal of Educational and Developmental Psychology, 9(1), 2019, 15-24.

87.	F. O. Akinwunmi & T. O Adeyemi, Impact of Continuous Professional Development on Teachers' Attitudes toward Early Childhood Education in Nigeria. International Journal of Early Childhood Education, 3(2), 2017, 39-48.

88.	P. Matende & W. Simbanegavi, The Effects of National Policies on Teachers' Professional Qualifications and Attitudes Toward Teaching in Malawi and Zambia. International Journal of Educational Sciences, 24(2), 2018, 43-52.

89.	M. A. Ibrahim & N. O. Ibrahim, Teaching Experience and Attitudes of Preschool Teachers toward Teaching in Nigeria. International Journal of Education, Learning, and Development, 9(2), 2021, 37-50.

90.	O. O. Oni & B. J. Ogunkola, Quality of Teacher Training Programmes and Teachers' Attitudes toward Teaching in Early Childhood Education in Nigeria. Journal of Early Childhood Education Research, 8(2), 2019, 267-281.

91.	O. Adesina & O. O. Ogunnaike, Teacher Qualifications and Academic Performance of Preschoolers in Nigeria. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 33(3), 2019, 356-369.

92.	M. Karim & H. Ibrahim, Teacher Professional Qualifications and Academic Achievement of Preschool Children in Ghana. International Journal of Early Childhood Education, 23(2), 2017, 103-119.

93.	I. S. Chinyoka & M. Mutisya, Teacher Qualifications and Academic Performance of Preschoolers from Different Cultural Backgrounds in Zimbabwe. Early Child Development and Care, 190(8), 2020, 1108-1121.

94.	A. O. Olaleye & L. U. Ogbonnaya, The Effects of Professional Development on Teachers' Instructional Practices and Preschoolers' Academic Performance. Journal of Early Childhood Teacher Education, 39(2), 2018, 181-197.

95.	E. A. Emeke & N. J. Obidike, Teacher Professional Development and Academic Performance of Preschool Children in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 10(18), 2019, 88-95.

96.	C. I. Okeke & C. J. Nwagbo, Socioeconomic Status and Academic Performance of Preschool Children in Nigeria. Early Child Development and Care, 187(4), 2017, 588-599.

97.	A. B. Mohammed & O. Akintayo, Parental Involvement and Academic Performance of Preschool Children in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 10(22), 2019, 140-146.

98.	B. B. Onwuagboke & U. O. Amaechi, The Influence of the Learning Environment on Preschoolers' Academic Performance in Nigeria. Journal of Early Childhood Education Research, 9(2), 2020, 241-259.

99.	R. N. Nwabueze & U. O. Onwuka, Teaching Methods and Academic Performance of Preschool Children in Nigeria. Journal of Early Childhood Education Research, 7(1), 2018, 1-17.
  
100.	R. S. Oyekale, O. O. Ogunnaike & F. I. Olagunju, Impact of Educational Resources on Preschoolers' Academic Performance in Nigeria. Journal of Education and Practice, 10(35), 2019, 7-16.

Chapter Three
Methodology
3.1	Research Design
This study adopted the descriptive survey research design of the ex-post facto type. This design was adopted because it helped the researcher to make a proper investigation for description, drawing inferences and making generalisation; while determining how the independent variables influenced the dependent variable. This design was also adopted because the variables of the study was not manipulated since the variables had already occurred.

3.2	Population of Study
The population of the study consisted of all preschool teachers and all preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo State.

3.3	Sample and Sampling Techniques
The sample for this study were three hundred and ninety five (395) preschoolers and forty eight (48) preschool teachers. Regarding the preschoolers, a sample of preschool children within the age range of five years were used for the achievement test on Literacy and Numeracy. The selection of preschoolers took into account their enrollment in preschool or early childhood education programmes within Ibadan North Local Government area. 
The purposive sampling technique was used to select Ibadan North Local Government area. This local government was divided into clusters based on geographic administrative units. From which five (5) public and five (5) private preschools were selected respectively for this study. Within each selected preschool, all eligible preschool teachers were included in this study. This meant that the sampling technique of total enumeration was used for the selection of teachers that is, all teachers working in the selected preschools were used for this study. Furthermore, within the selected preschools, a purposive sampling technique was used to select preschoolers within the age range of five years (preprimary class).  

3.4	Research Instruments
Two self-structured questionnaires titled: “Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualification Questionnaire (TAPQQ)” and “Literacy and Numeracy Achievement Test (LNAT)” were used to collect data for this study. They both consisted of structured items and were described as follow:
3.4.1 Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications Questionnaire (TAPQQ)

This questionnaire was for preschool teachers in the selected schools for this study which comprised three (3) sections. Section A focused on demographic information of the teachers which provided information on the profile of the teachers that were used for this study. Section B included question items on level of teachers’ attitude towards teaching of the preschool pupils in Ibadan North Local Government. The rating technique used was based on the four point Liker-t rating scale with responses varying from: Strongly Agree (SA) = 4 points, Agree (A) = 3 points, Disagree (D) = 2 points, and Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1 point. Section C contained question items on the Professional Qualifications of the preschool teachers in the selected schools for this study. The rating technique used was based on the four point liker-t rating scale with responses varying from: Strongly Agree (SA) = 4 points, Agree (A) = 3 points, Disagree (D) = 2 points, and Strongly Disagree (SD) = 1 point. 
3.4.2	Literacy and Numeracy Achievement Test (LNAT)
This instrument contained question items for the pupils of age five in the selected preschools of the schools for this study. There were three sections in all. Section A was on demographic data of the pupils used for achievement test. Section B was on academic achievement test in Literacy for preschooler children which contained six question items for age 5 (Nursery 2). While Section C was on academic achievement test in Numeracy which contained six question items for age 5 (Nursery 2). The rating scale was based on 0-39=1, 40-49=2, 50-59=3, 60-69=4, and 70 and above =5.

3.5	Validity of the Instruments
The validity of the instrument was ascertained through face and content validity. To ascertain the face and content validity of the instruments, the instruments was given to experts in Early Childhood Education, experts in Test and Measurement, and the researcher’s supervisor. The corrections, criticisms and opinions were studied carefully and incorporated into the final draft copy which was trial-tested in a pilot study.

3.6	Reliability of the Research Instruments
The reliability of the instruments were determined through test and re-test method within two weeks. The instrument was tested among 20 respondents each of pupils and teachers in Akinyele Local Government, Oyo state, which was not part of the study area. The result of the test and re-test was computed using Cronbach’s Alpha. The reliability was to ascertain the internal consistency/stability of the questionnaires. The Kuder Richardson – twenty one (KR-21) was used to ascertain the reliability of the achievement test. The Cronbach’s Alpha for Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications Questionnaire (TAPQQ) gave reliability coefficients value of .808; while Kuder Richardson – twenty one (KR21) gave a value of .765 for the Literacy and Numeracy Achievement Test (LNAT).
 
3.7	Administration of Instrument and Method of Data Collection
The researcher obtained due authorization letter of introduction from the Department before conducting the fieldwork. Thereafter, four research assistants were recruited and trained on the questionnaires and achievement test administration. Thereafter, courtesy visit was paid to the schools in order to notify them about the aim of the study and the need for the cooperation of the teachers with the research staff within a period of one month to administer the instruments to the respondents. The researcher with the assistance of the four research assistants explained all aspects of the instruments to the respondents. The respondents were assured of the confidentiality of the information supplied. All administered questionnaire were collated within the time frame for data analysis. 

3.8	Method of Data Analysis
The descriptive statistical tool of frequency counts and percentages was used to analyse demographic data of the respondents. Mean, standard deviation and Ranking were used to assess the levels of academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among preschooler in private and public schools. Mean, standard deviation and Ranking were also used to assess the levels of teacher’s attitude on Literacy and Numeracy in private and public schools. Fisher’s exact test was used to analyse the third research questions associations were applicable. While the hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using Multiple Regression Analysis and Pearson’s moment correlation analysis. 

Chapter Four
Results and Discussion of Findings
This chapter presents the results and discussion of findings of this research. Sub-headings in this chapter include: Instrument Response Rate, Presentation of Data (Demographic Data Analysis, Research Questions and Hypotheses) and Discussion of Findings.
4.1	Instrument Response Rate
Table 4.1: Instrument Response Rate
S/N	Name of Questionnaire	Number Distributed	Number Returned	Number of Valid Copies	Response Rate 	
	Overall					
1.	Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications Questionnaire (TAPQQ)	50	48	48	96.0%	
2.	Literacy Academic Achievement Test (LNAT)	400	395	391	97.8%	
						
	Private					
1.	Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications Questionnaire (TAPQQ)	32	30	30	93.8%	
2.	Literacy Academic Achievement Test (LNAT)	123	118	118	95.9%	
						
	Public School					
1.	Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications Questionnaire (TAPQQ)	18	18	18	100.0	
2.	Literacy Academic Achievement Test (LNAT)	277	277	273	98.6%	
 Source: Fieldwork, 2023
	Table 4.1 showed the number of instruments (Teacher’s attitude questionnaire and achievement tests) that were distributed, returned and validated for use in the study. One of the questionnaires was self-constructed tagged: “Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications Questionnaire (TAPQQ)”. For this particular questionnaire, a total of fifty (50) was distributed among preschool teachers across public and private schools in Ibadan North, Local Government Area (LGA) and forty-eight were retrieved and all forty-eight were valid and were therefore used for the study. This has a response rate of 96.0% which falls within an excellent response rate for the questionnaire.
On the other hand, a total of four hundred (400) questionnaire copies were produced each, for the Literacy and Numeracy Academic Achievement Test (LNAT), but three hundred and ninety-one (391) copies were retrieved. The three hundred and ninety-one copies retrieved were valid and were used for the study. The LNAT has a response rate of 97.8% which was an excellent response rate for the study. 
A total of 32 TAPQQ questionnaires were distributed to pre-school teachers in private schools. Impressively, 30 out of the 32 distributed questionnaires were retrieved, and all 30 retrieved copies were considered valid for the study. This resulted in a response rate of 93.8%. Among preschool public school teachers, 18 TAPQQ questionnaires were distributed, and all 18 questionnaires were retrieved. All the 18 retrieved questionnaire from the public preschools were considered valid for this study. This resulted in a response rate of 100%. The high response rate indicated a commendable level of engagement and cooperation from the preschool teachers. For the LNAT, 123 questionnaire copies were distributed to students in private schools, and 118 copies were successfully retrieved. All 118 of these retrieved copies were deemed valid for the study. The LNAT achieved an exceptional response rate of 95.9%. In the case of the LNAT in public schools, 277 questionnaire copies were distributed to students in public schools. A substantial number of 273 were successfully retrieved, and all the questionnaires were deemed valid for the study. The LNAT achieved an exceptional response rate of 98.6%.

4.2	Presentation of Data
4.2.1 	Analysis of Demographic Data 
Table 4.2a: Distribution of Teachers’ Demographic Characteristics Stratified by School-type
Demographic Variable	Private
n=30 (%)	Public
n=18 (%)	Total
N=48 (%)	
Teachers Characteristics				
Sex				
Male	1 (3.3)	3 (16.7)	4 (8.3)	
Female 	29 (96.7)	15 (83.3)	44 (91.7)	
Age				
25 years and below	2 (6.7)	0 (0.0)	2 (4.2)	
26-30 years	3 (10.0)	0 (0.0)	3 (6.3)	
31-35 years	4 (13.3)	0 (0.0)	4 (8.3)	
36-40 years	5 (16.7)	1 (5.6)	6 (12.5)	
41 years and above 	13 (43.3)	16 (88.9)	29 (60.4)	
Not reported	3 (8.3)	1 (5.6)	4 (8.3)	
Professional Qualification				
NCE	9 (30.0)	11 (61.1)	20 (41.7)	
B.A/B.ED/B.Sc	15 (50.0)	6 (33.3)	21 (43.8)	
M.Ed/M.A	1 (3.3)	0 (0.0)	1 (2.1)	
Ph.D	1 (3.3)	0 (0.0)	1 (2.1)	
Not reported	4 (13.3)	1 (5.6)	5 (10.4)	
Years of Teaching Experience				
5 years and below	8 (26.7)	1 (5.6)	9 (18.1)	
6-10 years	5 (16.7)	1 (5.6)	6 (12.5)	
11-15 years	9 (30.0)	0 (0.0)	9 (18.8)	
16-20 years	4 (13.3)	2 (11.1)	6 (12.5)	
21 years and above	3 (10.0)	14 (77.8)	17 (35.4)	
Not reported	1 (3.3)	0 (0.0)	1 (2.1)	
Continuing Professional Development (National Teachers’ Registration Council)				
Yes	5 (16.7)	5 (27.8)	10 (20.8)	
No	25 (83.3)	13 (72.2)	38 (79.2)	
No. of Pupil				
25 and below	26 (86.7)	6 (33.3)	32 (66.7)	
26-30	2 (6.7)	3 (16.7)	5 (10.4)	
31-35	0 (0.0)	6 (33.3)	6 (12.5)	
 (36-40	0 (0.0)	1 (5.6)	1 (2.1)	
41 and above	0 (0.0)	2 (11.1)	2 (4.2)	
Not reported	2 (6.7)	0 (0.0)	2 (4.2)	
Source: Fieldwork, 2023

In Table 4.2a the demographic characteristics of the teachers’ respondents were presented. A total of 48 respondents (teachers) consisting of 30 from private and 18 from public schools participated in the study.  Overall, majority of them, 44(91.7%) were women, while only 4 (8.3%) of them were men. Also, out of the 48 teachers’ respondents, 29 (60.4%) were 41 years and above, and 21 (43.8%) had B.A/B.ED/B.Sc, 20 (41.7%) had NCE, and there were few teachers with "M.Ed/M.A" (2.1%) and "Ph.D." (2.1%) qualifications. Most of the teachers 17 (35.4%) had experience of 21 years and above, with most of them 77.8% in public schools and 9 (18.1%) had <5 years of teaching experience. Additionally, most teachers 66.7% handle 25 pupils and below, and 10 teachers 20.8% have engaged in continuing professional development.

  Table 4.2b: Distribution of Demographic Characteristics of Preschoolers
Demographic Variable	Private
n(%)	Public
n(%)	Total
N(%)	
Sex				
Male	64 (54.2)	152 (55.7)	216 (55.2)	
Female	54 (45.8)	121 (44.3)	175 (44.8)	
Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Table 4.2b provides a breakdown of the demographic characteristics of respondents (pupils) in private and public preschools, with 391 pupils included in the study. There were 216 male respondents (pupils) in the sample, comprising 55.2% of the total respondents. Out of the respondents, 64 (54.2%) were from private preschools, and 152 (55.7%) were from public preschools. There were 175 female respondents (pupils) in the sample, making up 44.8% of the total respondents (pupils) sampled. Out of the respondents (pupils), 54 (45.8%) were from private preschools, and 121 (44.3%) were from public preschools.
4.2 	Presentation of Analysis of Research Questions

Research Question One:	What is the level of preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state?

Table 4.3: Level of Academic Performance in Literacy and Numeracy     among Preschoolers 
Subject		Frequency (%)	Mean	Std	Ranking
(within School)	Ranking
(within Subject)	
English							
	Private School						
	<40	2 (1.7)	25.0	19.6	5th 	9th 	
	40-49	1 (0.8)	44.4	0.0	4th 	7th 	
	50-59	3 (2.5)	53.7	3.2	3rd 	5th 	
	60-69	6 (5.1)	62.9	2.8	2nd 	4th 	
	≥70	106 (89.8)	93.9	8.5	1st 	1st 	
	Public School					 	
	<40	106 (38.8)	20.2	13.3	5th 	10th 	
	40-49	21 (7.7)	44.4	0.0	4th 	8th 	
	50-59	32 (11.7)	53.4	2.7	3rd 	6th 	
	60-69	27 (9.9)	64.4	2.7	2nd 	3rd 	
	≥70	87 (31.9)	84.6	10.1	1st 	2nd	
Numeracy							
	Private School						
	<40	10 (8.5)	35.2	33.2	5th 	10th 	
	40-49	12 (10.2)	41.1	0.0	4th 	8th 	
	50-59	12 (10.2)	56.8	49.3	3rd 	7th 	
	60-69	1 (0.8)	69.6	36.3	2nd 	3rd 	
	≥70	83 (70.3)	78.0	23.3	1st 	2nd 	
	Public School						
	<40	65 (23.8)	40.1	23.6	5th 	9th 	
	40-49	29 (10.6)	58.5	22.2	4th 	6th 	
	50-59	44 (16.1)	63.0	17.7	3rd 	5th 	
	60-69	24 (8.8)	65.5	21.8	2nd 	4th 	
	≥70	111 (40.7)	80.0	18.8	1st 	1st 	
Source: Fieldwork, 2023

Table 4.3 shows the academic performance of pupils in English and Numeracy, categorized by different performance levels and school types (Private Preschool and Public Preschool).    Among the respondents there was a noteworthy disparity in their performance in Literacy. Among the respondents who scored <40, 38.8% of them were public Schools’ pupils; with only (1.7%) from private preschools. A slightly higher representation from public preschools (7.7%) of the respondents (pupils) scored between 40 and 49, compared to private preschools (0.8%). Also, of the respondents (pupils) who scored between 50 and 59, and a majority 11.7% were from public preschool (11.7%) compared to private schools (2.5%). Most pupil scored 70 or higher in English. This high-performance group is dominated mainly by private preschool pupils (89.8%), with only 31.9% from public preschools. The results indicated a significant association between school type and student performance in English. private preschool pupils consistently outperform their public preschool counterparts across all performance categories. 
Upon further examination of the data, several key observations emerged: Firstly, the mean score in the English for pupils who scored over 70% is 93.9 (in private school) and ranked first, indicating that the that pupil in the public-school performance better in Literacy than those in the public school. Similarly, the mean score in the English for pupils who scored over 70% is 84.6 (in public school) and ranked second, indicating that a good performance. Overall, given the ranking in Table 4.3, the level of performance in Literacy is relatively better in the private schools with majority scoring above 60% while the ranking shows that majority in the public school scored below 40%. 
Further, some of the respondents (pupils) scored <40 in Numeracy and notably, 23.8% of these low scorers were from public schools; while only 8.5% were from private preschools. Furthermore, in the 50-59 score range in Numeracy, 44 pupils (16.1%) from public preschools achieved this level; while a smaller proportion of 10.2% came from private preschools. For pupils scoring between 60 and 69, Public preschools were more significantly represented with 8.8% compared to the minimal 0.8% from private preschools. In the highest category, private preschools (70.3%) substantially outperform public preschools (40.7%). 
Apart from that, the ranking of mean score in Numeracy for pupils who scored over 70% is 78.0 (in private school) and ranked second, indicating that the that pupil in the public-school performance well in Numeracy. On the other, the mean score in Numeracy for pupils who scored over 70% is 80.0 (in public school) was slightly higher and ranked first, indicating that a slight better performance. Overall, the results provided clear evidence of a significant disparity in performance in Numeracy between school type Notably, Private preschool respondents (pupils) consistently outperform their Public preschool counterparts, especially in the higher grades of Numeracy. 

Research Question Two:	What is the level of teachers’ attitude (teacher-student relationship, instructional methods and Classroom climate) in the teaching of Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state?

Table 4.4: Level of Teachers' Attitude on the Teaching of Literacy and Numeracy among Preschoolers
Teachers’ Attitude	Attitude	Mean	Std	Ranking
(within school)	Ranking
(across school)	

Private School	Poor 
N(%)	Good
N(%)					
Teacher-student relationship	21 (70.0)	9 (30.0)	37.3	3.4	1st 	1st 	
Instructional methods	20 (66.7)	10 (33.3)	20.7	3.0	2nd 	3rd 	
Classroom climate	19 (63.3)	11 (36.7)	15.0	1.9	3rd 	5th 	

Public School							
Teacher-student relationship	15 (83.3)	3 (16.7)	35.9	4.2	1st 	2nd 	
Instructional methods	16 (88.9)	2 (11.1)	19.4	2.2	2nd 	4th 	
Classroom climate	12 (66.7)	6 (33.3)	13.3	2.4	3rd 	6th 	

Combined Sample							
Teacher-student relationship	36 (75.0)	12 (25.0)	36.3	4.1	1st 	NA	
Instructional methods	36 (75.0)	12 (25.0)	19.8	2.6	2nd 	NA	
Classroom climate	31 (64.6)	17 (35.4)	13.8	2.4	3rd 	NA	
NA - Not applicable
Source: Fieldwork, 2023

The results of the teachers' attitudes in both private and public preschool was presented in Table 4.4 the result showed that private preschools, have a larger proportion, 70.0% of the respondents (teachers) as having a poor teacher-student relationship; while 30.0% had a good teacher-student relationship. Similarly, 66.7% of the respondents (teachers) had a poor attitude in instructional methods, and only 33.3% had a poor attitude. Also, 63.3% of the respondents (teachers) in private preschools had a poor classroom climate attitude, and 36.7% had a good classroom climate attitude. For the overall attitude score in private schools, 70.0% of teachers had a poor attitude, while 30.0% had a good attitude. In addition, the Mean score for teacher-student relationship is 37.3 and ranked first among teachers’ attitude in private school. This indicate that the attitude of teachers in the public school is better in the teacher-student relationship than the instructional material and classroom climate domains.
Further, among the public preschool teachers, 83.3% had a poor teacher-student relationship, and 16.7% had a good attitude. In a similar trend, 88.9% of the respondents (teachers) had poor teaching instructional methods, only 11.1% were good in their instructional methods, and more than half, 66.7% of the respondents (teachers), had poor classroom climate compared to 33.3% that was good. The overall attitude score in public preschools (83.3%) was poor; while 16.7% was good. On the other hand, the Mean score for teacher-student relationship is 35.9 and also ranked first among teachers’ attitude in the public school. This indicate that the attitude of teachers in the public schools are better in the teacher-student relationship than the instructional material and classroom climate domains.
In the combined population, a significant majority 75.0% exhibited a poor teacher-student relationship, while a minority 25.0% displayed a good attitude. Similarly, an overwhelming majority 75.0% demonstrated a poor teaching instructional method, with a mere 11.1% being good. Furthermore, more than half of the respondents (teachers) 64.6% cultivated a poor classroom climate, whereas a significant proportion 35.4% lagged in this regard (P<0.05). The overall attitude score indicated a predominantly poor disposition 75.0%, with a notable minority (25.0%) reflecting a good attitude.
Overall, when the mean scores of the attitude domains were ranked across schools, the mean score for teacher-student relationship in the private school (37.3) ranked first among teachers’ attitude across schools. This indicates that teacher-student relationship in the public school is better overall when compared with the other attitude domains (like instructional material and classroom climate), across school.

Research Question Three:	What is the professional qualifications (Educational qualification that is, level of education; years of experience and continuing professional development) of preschool teachers for Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government?

Table 4.5:	Professional Qualifications of Preschool Teachers for Literacy and Numeracy
Teachers’ Professional Qualifications	Total
N(%)	School Type		Exact Test value	p-value	
		Private school
n(%)	Public School
n(%)			
Professional Qualification						
NCE	20 (41.7)	9 (30.0)	11 (61.1)	4.83	0.286	
B.A/B.ED/B.Sc	21 (43.8)	15 (50.0)	6 (33.3)			
M.Ed/M.A	1 (2.1)	1 (3.3)	0 (0.0)			
Ph.D	1 (2.3)	1 (3.3)	0 (0.0)			
Not reported	5 (10.4)	4 (13.3)	1 (5.6)			
Years of Teaching Experience						
5 years and below	9 (18.8)	8 (26.7)	1 (5.6)	23.92	<0.001	
6-10 years	6 (12.5)	5 (16.7)	1 (5.6)			
11-15 years	9 (18.8)	9 (30.0)	0 (0.0)			
16-20 years	6 (12.5)	4 (13.3)	2 (11.1)			
21 years and above	17 (35.4)	3 (10.0)	14 (77.8)			
Not reported	1 (2.1)	1 (2.1)	0 (0.0)			
Continuing Professional Development (National Teachers’ Registration Council)						
Yes	38 (79.2)	25 (83.3)	13 (72.2)	0.842	0.359	
No	10 (20.8)	5 (16.7)	5 (27.8)			
Source: Fieldwork, 2023
The professional qualification of the teachers is presented in Table 4.5, about 20 (41.7%) of the teachers had NCE, 21 (43.8%) had B.A/B.ED/B.Sc, and 2 (4.4) of the teachers had M.Ed/M.A and Ph.D. Most NCE holders 61.1% were from public preschools and most of the B.A/B.ED/B.Sc holders 50.0% were from private preschools. In the combined sampled respondents, teachers with 21 years and above of teaching experience constituted a significant majority 35.4%; while only 18.8% had 5 years or less. A significant proportion (26.7%) of the respondents (teachers) with 5 years or less experience were from private preschools; while only 5.6% were from private preschools. Similarly, teachers with 6-10 years of experience were more 16.7% in private preschools compared to public preschools (5.6) (P<0.001). However, most public preschool teachers (77.8%) had experience of 21 years and above; while only 10.0% of the private preschool teachers had years of experience. Meanwhile, 38(79.2%) of the teachers in both public and private preschools had engaged in continual professional development (National Teachers Registration Council programme) of which 83.3% were from private schools and 72.2% were from public schools (P>0.05).

4.3	Test of Hypotheses 
H01: There will be no significant joint prediction of teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state.

Table 4.6:	Joint Prediction of Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications on Preschoolers Academic Achievement in Literacy and Numeracy
Models and Model Predictors	Literacy	Numeracy	
	Beta coefficient	
p-value	
R-square	Beta coefficient	
p-value	
R-square	
Model 1:
For The Combined Sample							
Intercept (0)	-57.82	<0.001	0.20	-21.96	0.13	0.11	
Teachers’ Attitude score (1)	1.89	<0.001		1.19	<0.001		
Professional qualification (2)	-0.74	0.22		0.17	0.76		
Model 2: For the Private School							
Intercept (0)	91.73	<0.001	0.01	135.85	<0.001	0.09	
Teachers’ Attitude score (1)	0.07	0.79		-1.20	0.002		
Professional qualification (2)	-0.44	0.38		1.79	0.024		
Model 3: For the Public School							
Intercept (0)	-78.50	<0.001	0.21	-48.17	0.01	0.20	
Teachers’ Attitude score (1)	1.70	<0.001		1.52	<0.001		
Professional qualification (2)	0.79	0.30		0.18	0.80		
Dependent variable is Academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy;
Predictors are Teachers’ attitude and Professional qualifications

Source: Fieldwork, 2023

The Table 4.6 showed the results of the regression analysis to assess the joint prediction of teachers’ attitude to teaching and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievements in Literacy and Numeracy. In the regression model 1 (the model for the combined sample) for Literacy, the beta coefficient for teachers’ attitude was B = 1.89 with a p-value <0.001 indicating that the joint prediction of teachers’ attitude was significant at p<0.01; while the beta coefficient for professional qualification was B = -0.74 with a p-value=0.22 which indicated that the joint prediction of professional qualification was not significant at P<0.01. The R-square of 0.20 indicated that the model for the joint prediction of these two variables (teachers’ attitude and professional qualification) explained 20.0% of the variations in the preschoolers’ academic achievements in Literacy. 
Similarly, in model 1 (the model for the combined sample) for Numeracy, the beta coefficient for teachers’ attitude was B = 1.19 with a p-value <0.001 indicated that the joint prediction of teachers’ attitude was significant at p<0.01; while the beta coefficient for Professional qualification was B = -0.17 with a p-value=0.76 which indicated that the joint prediction of professional qualification was not significant at P<0.01. The R-square of 0.11 indicated that the model for the joint prediction of these two variables (teachers’ attitude and professional qualification) explained 11.0% of the variations in the preschoolers’ academic achievements in Numeracy.
On the other hand, in regression model 2 (the model for Private preschool) for Literacy, the beta coefficient for teachers’ attitude was B = 0.07 with a p-value =0.79 indicated that the joint prediction of teachers’ attitude was not significant at p<0.05; while the beta coefficient for Professional qualification was B = -0.44 with a p-value=0.38 which indicated that the joint prediction of professional qualification was not significant at P<0.05. The R-square of 0.01 indicated that the model for the joint prediction of these two variables (teachers’ attitude and professional qualification) explained 1.0% of the variations in the preschoolers’ academic achievements in Literacy. Similarly, in model 2 (the model for Private preschool) for Numeracy, the beta coefficient for teachers’ attitude was B = -1.20 with a p-value =0.002 indicating that the joint prediction of teachers’ attitude was significant at p<0.01; while the beta coefficient for professional qualification was B = 1.79 with a p-value=0.024 which indicated that the joint prediction of professional qualification was significant at P<0.05. The R-square of 0.09 indicated that the model for the joint prediction of these two variables (teachers’ attitude and professional qualification) explained 9.0% of the variations in the preschoolers’ academic achievements in Numeracy.
Finally, in the regression model 3 (the model for public preschool) for Literacy, the beta coefficient for teachers’ attitude was B = 1.70 with a p-value <0.001 indicating that the joint prediction of teachers’ attitude was significant at p<0.01 while the beta coefficient for professional qualification was B = 0.79 with a p-value=0.30 which indicated that the joint prediction of professional qualification was not significant at P<0.05. The R-square of 0.21 indicated that the model for the joint prediction of these two variables (teachers’ attitude and professional qualification) explained 21.0% of the variations in the preschoolers’ academic achievements in Literacy. Similarly, in model 2 (the model for public preschool) for Numeracy, the beta coefficient for teachers’ attitude was B = 1.52 with a p-value <0.001 indicating that the joint prediction of teachers’ attitude was significant at p<0.01; while the beta coefficient for professional qualification was B = 0.18 with a p-value=0.80 which indicated that the joint prediction of professional qualification was not significant at P<0.05. The R-square of 0.20 indicated that the model for the joint prediction of these two variables (teachers’ attitude and professional qualification) explained 20.0% of the variations in the preschoolers’ academic achievements in Numeracy.

H02: There will be no significant relative prediction of teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state.

4.7:	Relative Prediction of Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications on Preschoolers’ Academic Achievements in Literacy and Numeracy
	
Literacy	
Numeracy	

Models and Model Predictors	Beta coefficient	95%CI	
p-value	R-square	Beta coefficient	95%CI	p-value	R-square	
		Lower	Upper				Lower	Upper			
Model 1: For the Combined Sample											
Intercept (0)	-47.97	-78.13	-17.82	0.002	0.25	-11.53	-39.32	16.27	0.42	0.20	
Teachers’ student relationship (1)	0.23	-0.70	1.16	0.63		-0.57	-1.43	0.29	0.19		
Instructional methods (2)	2.20	0.82	3.58	0.002		1.42	0.14	2.69	0.03		
Classroom climate (3)	4.97	3.60	6.34	<0.001		4.60	3.33	5.86	<0.001		
Professional qualification (4)	-0.65	-1.85	0.55	0.29		0.30	-0.81	1.40	0.60		
Model 2: For Private School											
Intercept (0)	84.78	47.67	121.90	<0.001	0.02	138.33	83.00	193.65	<0.001	0.19	
Teachers’ student relationship (1)	0.13	-0.75	1.01	0.77		-2.63	-3.94	-1.32	<0.001		
Instructional methods (2)	-0.45	-1.54	0.64	0.42		-0.96	-2.58	0.66	0.24		
Classroom climate (3)	1.01	-0.56	2.58	0.21		2.37	0.03	4.71	0.05		
Professional qualification (4)	-0.36	-1.41	0.68	0.49		1.31	-2.54	2.86	0.10		
Model 3: For Public School											
Intercept (0)	-77.16	-112.06	-42.26	<0.001	0.25	-46.99	-79.62	-14.36	0.01	0.24	
Teachers’ student relationship (1)	-0.37	-1.65	0.91	0.57		-0.51	-1.70	0.69	0.41		
Instructional methods (2)	3.44	1.38	5.50	0.001		3.41	1.49	5.35	0.001		
Classroom climate (3)	4.43	2.75	6.11	<0.001		4.04	2.47	5.60	<0.001		
Professional qualification (4)	0.93	-0.63	2.48	0.24		0.25	-1.20	1.70	0.74		
Source: Fieldwork, 2023
Further, Table 4.7 showed the relative prediction with 95.0% Confidence interval (95% CI) of teachers’ attitude (teacher-student relationship, instructional methods and classroom climate) and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievements in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state.
In particular, in the regression model 1 (for the relative prediction of the variables on Literacy in the combined sample) in Table 4.7, the beta coefficient for teachers-student relationship was B = 0.23 (95.0% CI: -0.07 to 1.16) with a p-value =0.63 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05); beta coefficient for instructional methods was B = 2.20 (95.0% CI: 0.82 to 3.58) with a p-value =0.002 (significant relative prediction at p<0.01); beta coefficient for classroom climate was B = 4.97 (95.0% CI: 3.60 to 6.34) with a p-value <0.001 (significant relative prediction at p<0.01); while beta coefficient for professional qualifications was B = -0.65 (95.0% CI: -1.85 to 0.55) with a p-value =0.29 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05). The R-square value of 0.25 indicated that the relative prediction of these predictors was able to explain 25.0% of the variation in the academic achievements in Literacy among the preschoolers in Ibadan North LGA of Oyo state. 
Similarly, in the regression model 1 (for the relative prediction of the variables on Numeracy in the combined sample) in table 4.7, the beta coefficient for teacher-student relationship was B = -0.57 (95.0% CI: -1.43 to 0.29) with a p-value =0.19 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05); beta coefficient for instructional methods was B = 21.42 (95.0% CI: 0.14 to 2.69) with a p-value =0.03 (significant relative prediction at p<0.05); beta coefficient for classroom climate was B = 4.60 (95.0% CI: 3.33 to 5.86) with a p-value <0.001 (significant relative prediction at p<0.01); while beta coefficient for professional qualifications was B = -0.30 (95.0% CI: -0.81 to 1.40) with a p-value =0.60 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05). The R-square value of 0.20 indicated that the relative prediction of these variables was able to explain 20.0% of the variation in the academic achievements in Numeracy among the preschoolers in Ibadan North LGA of Oyo state.
In the regression model 2 (for the relative prediction of the variables on Literacy in Private preschools) in Table 4.7, the beta coefficient for teachers-student relationship was B = 0.13 (95.0% CI: -0.75 to 1.01) with a p-value =0.77 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05); beta coefficient for instructional methods was B = -0.45 (95.0% CI: -1.54 to 0.64) with a p-value =0.42 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05); beta coefficient for classroom climate was B = 1.01 (95.0% CI: -0.56 to 2.58) with a p-value =0.21 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05); while beta coefficient for professional qualifications was B = -0.36 (95.0% CI: -1.41 to 0.68) with a p-value =0.49 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05). The R-square value of 0.02 indicated that the relative prediction of these variables was able to explain 2.0% of the variation in the academic achievements in Literacy among the preschoolers in the private schools in Ibadan North LGA of Oyo state. 
Also, in the regression model 2 (for the relative contribution of the predictors on Numeracy in Private preschool) in Table 4.7, the beta coefficient for teacher-student relationship was B = -2.63 (95.0% CI: 3.94 to -1.32) with a p-value <0.001 (significant relative prediction at p<0.01); beta coefficient for instructional methods was B = -0.96 (95.0% CI: -2.58 to 0.66) with a p-value =0.24 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05); beta coefficient for classroom climate was B = 2.37 (95.0% CI: 0.03 to 4.71) with a p-value =0.5 (no significant relative prediction at p<0.05); while beta coefficient for professional qualifications was B = 1.31 (95.0% CI: -2.54 to 2.86) with a p-value =0.10 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05). The R-square value of 0.19 indicated that the relative prediction of these variables was able to explain 19.0% of the variation in the academic achievements in Numeracy among in the preschoolers in the private schools in Ibadan North LGA of Oyo state.
On the other hand, in the regression model 3 (for the relative contribution of the predictors on Literacy in public school) in Table 4.7, the beta coefficient for teacher-student relationship was B = -0.37 (95.0% CI: -1.65 to 0.91) with a p-value =0.57 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05); beta coefficient for instructional methods was B = 3.44 (95.0% CI: 1.38 to 5.50) with a p-value =0.001 (significant relative prediction at p<0.01); beta coefficient for classroom climate was B = 4.43 (95.0% CI: 2.75 to 6.11) with a p-value <0.001 (significant relative prediction at p<0.01); while beta coefficient for professional qualifications was B = 0.93 (95.0% CI: -0.63 to 2.48) with a p-value =0.24 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05). The R-square value of 0.25 indicated that the relative contribution of these predictors was able to explain 25.0% of the variation in the academic achievements in Literacy among the preschoolers in the public schools in Ibadan North LGA of Oyo state. 
Similarly, in the regression model 3 (for the relative contribution of the predictors on Numeracy in public school) in Table 4.7, the beta coefficient for teacher-student relationship was B = -0.51 (95.0% CI: -1.70 to 0.69) with a p-value =0.41 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05); beta coefficient for instructional methods was B = 3.41 (95.0% CI: 1.49 to 5.35) with a p-value =0.001 (significant relative prediction at p<0.01); beta coefficient for classroom climate was B = 4.04 (95.0% CI: 2.47 to 5.60) with a p-value <0.001 (significant relative prediction at p<0.01); while beta coefficient for professional qualifications was B = 0.25 (95.0% CI: -1.20 to 1.70 with a p-value =0.74 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05). The R-square value of 0.24 indicated that the relative prediction of these predictors was able to explain 24.0% of the variation in the academic achievements in Numeracy among the preschoolers in the public schools in Ibadan North LGA of Oyo state.

H03: There will be no significant school type difference in teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state.

Table 4.8: School-type Difference in Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications on Preschoolers’ Academic Achievements in Literacy and Numeracy

Variables	Combined Sample	Private School	Public Schools	
Remark	

Prediction between Literacy Test Score and the Independent Variables					
Teacher-student Relationship (X1)	0.35**	0.02	0.39**	Significant in public school only	
Instructional Methods (X2)	0.34**	-0.07	0.39**	Significant in public school only	
Classroom Climate (X3)	0.47**	0.09	0.44**	Significant in public school only	
Total Attitude Score (X4)	0.45**	0.003	0.46**	Significant in public school only	
Professional Qualification (X5)	-0.11	-0.08	0.08	Not significant in both schools	

Prediction between Numeracy Test Score and the Independent Variables					
Teacher-student Relationship (X1)	0.22**	-0.36**	0.37**	Significant in both schools	
Instructional methods (X2)	0.25**	-0.13	0.38**	Significant in public school only	
Classroom Climate (X3)	0.41**	0.12	0.43**	Significant in public school only	
Total Attitude Score (X4)	0.33**	-0.23*	0.44**	Significant in both schools	
Professional Qualification (X5)	0.05	0.13	0.04	Not significant in both schools	
*-P<0.05
**- P<0.01
Source: Fieldwork, 2023

The Table 4.8 showed the results for school type difference in teacher-attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievements in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state. Overall (in the combined sample), teachers’ attitudes were strongly correlated with Literacy and Numeracy academic achievements of preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state. However, teachers’ professional qualification does not show any significant correlation with achievement in Literacy and Numeracy academic achievements of preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state,
The results of the Pearson’s correlation analysis showed further that teachers’ attitudes were more strongly correlated with Literacy academic achievements of preschoolers in the public school than in the private schools while teachers’ professional qualifications do not have a significant correlation with the Literacy academic achievements of preschoolers in both private and public schools. In particular, in the public school, the correlation coefficient for teacher-student relationship was r = 0.39 with a p-value <0.01 (significant correlation at p<0.01); correlation coefficient for instructional methods was r = 0.39 with a p-value <0.001 (significant at p<0.01); correlation coefficient for classroom climate was r = 0.44 with a p-value <0.001 (significant at p<0.01); correlation coefficient for professional qualifications was r = 0.08 (95.0% CI: -1.85 to 0.55) with a p-value =0.29 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05). On the other hand, in the private preschools, the correlations between Literacy academic achievements of preschoolers and all measures of teachers’ attitude as well as teachers’ professional qualification were not significant.
Similarly, the results in Table 4.8 showed that teachers’ attitudes were more strongly correlated with Numeracy academic achievements of preschoolers in the public school than in the private schools while teachers’ professional qualifications do not have a significant correlation with the Numeracy academic achievements of preschoolers in both private and public schools. The correlation coefficient (in the public school) for teacher-student relationship was r = 0.37 with a p-value <0.01 (significant correlation at p<0.01); correlation coefficient for instructional methods was r = 0.38 with a p-value <0.001 (significant at p<0.01); correlation coefficient for classroom climate was r = 0.43 with a p-value <0.001 (significant at p<0.01); correlation coefficient for professional qualifications was r = 0.04 (95.0% CI: -1.85 to 0.55) with a p-value =0.29 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05). In the private school, the correlations between Numeracy academic achievements of preschoolers and all measures of teachers’ attitude were significant only for teacher-students’ relationship and the overall attitude score but teachers’ professional qualification does not have a significant correlation with Numeracy academic achievements of preschoolers in the private school.

4.4	Discussion of Findings
This study investigated the predictors of academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo State, Nigeria, with a specific focus on the teachers' attitudes and professional qualifications. Through an in-depth analysis of these findings, light was shed on the multifaceted nature of early childhood education, offering insights into the roles that teacher’ attitudes and professional qualifications play in shaping the academic achievements of preschoolers. It was envisaged that the results would have implications for policymakers and educators, emphasizing the need to address disparities between public and private schools in terms of resources and teacher qualifications to improve the quality of early childhood education and enhance the academic achievement of preschoolers.
It was found that preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy is higher in private schools compared to public schools in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo State. This finding aligns with previous research highlighting the influence of school type on student outcomes. Private schools often have smaller class sizes, more resources, and, in some cases, qualified teachers1. These advantages can create an environment conducive to enhanced learning experiences. Additionally, private schools may employ different teaching methods, curriculum structures, and assessment approaches that cater to individual student needs, potentially contributing to the observed high academic performance among preschoolers2. This finding also has important implications for educational policymakers and stakeholders in Ibadan North, Oyo State. It suggests that improving public school infrastructure, teacher qualifications, and instructional resources may be essential to bridge the academic achievement gap between public and private schools. Moreover, understanding the factors contributing to private schools' success can guide the development of effective teaching strategies and curriculum reforms in public preschools to enhance the quality of education and, ultimately, the academic achievement of preschoolers.
Also, this study found that there was a generally poor level of teachers' attitudes towards the teaching of Literacy and Numeracy among preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo State, and this is a matter of considerable concern. Teachers’ attitude, including teacher-student relationships, instructional methods, and classroom climate, were pivotal for creating a positive and effective learning environment. The pervasive poor attitude in both private and public schools in the region indicates a systemic challenge that warrants urgent attention. Previous research has emphasized the significance of teacher-student relationships in fostering student engagement and learning outcomes3. The poor attitudes observed in this study may hinder the development of positive teacher-student interactions and, in turn, have a negative impact on preschoolers’ academic achievements in Literacy and Numeracy. Addressing the issue of poor teacher attitudes is critical for enhancing the quality of early childhood education in Ibadan North, Oyo State. Strategies to improve teacher-student relationships, instructional methods, and classroom climate should be a priority for both private and public preschools. Professional development programmes and training that focus on pedagogical skills and creating a positive classroom atmosphere could be beneficial4. Additionally, school administrators and policymakers should consider interventions to enhance teacher motivation, job satisfaction, and overall attitudes towards teaching, as these factors can significantly influence the educational experience and academic achievements of preschoolers.
The professional qualifications (Educational qualification that is, level of education; years of experience and continuing professional development) of preschool teachers for Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government was generally good in public schools but better in the private schools than public schools. Overall, a higher proportion (48.8%) of the teachers having first degree in education and other areas of discipline. Also, more than 80% of the teachers have been in the teaching profession for more than five years and more than two-third of them (79.2%) were registered with the National Teacher’s Registration Council (evidence of continuous professional). This result aligns with prior research suggesting that private schools may have an advantage in attracting and retaining highly qualified educators due to factors such as better pay and working conditions1. It is high time policy makers in education invested in professional development opportunities for teachers in public schools to enhance their qualifications and competencies. Additionally, this finding underscores the need for policies that aim to create a more equitable balance of highly qualified teachers between public and private preschools, which could ultimately contribute to narrowing the academic achievement gap between the two sectors.
There is varying significant relative prediction of teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state. For instance, it was observed that the relative prediction of teachers’ attitude was more significant in the public schools compared to the private schools, while teachers’ professional qualification does not seem to have significant relative prediction across schools for both Literacy and Numeracy. This result was consistent with research showing that the teacher's role in shaping student outcomes can be particularly pronounced in public schools where resources are limited thereby making any show of positive attitude to be more pronounced5. It also emphasises the contextual nature of teacher effectiveness and its interaction with school type while the lack of significant relative prediction from teacher professional qualifications across school types may suggests that, in some cases, having a highly qualified teacher may not be enough to overcome the broader challenges associated with resource limitations and classroom conditions6. 
There was a significant joint prediction of teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state. This was evident from how the models of the joint predictions explained the variation in the academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy of preschoolers across schools. Notwithstanding, a poor performance of only 1.0% was observed as a joint prediction of teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy in private schools; but this was not enough to nullify the fact that there was a significant joint prediction to academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy across schools in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state. This result aligns with the notion that teacher effectiveness was a multifaceted construct influenced by a combination of teacher attitudes and qualifications7. It also suggests that when teachers exhibit positive attitudes and possess strong professional qualifications, the likelihood of improved preschoolers' academic achievement increases. Positive teacher attitudes contribute to a conducive learning environment that fosters engagement and active participation. Simultaneously, highly qualified teachers were equipped with the knowledge and pedagogical skills necessary to deliver effective instruction, aligning with prior research highlighting the significance of both teacher-student relationships and teacher expertise8. It is well known that teachers’ induction and mentoring programmes can serve as effective strategies for equipping educators with the skills, knowledge, and attitudes needed to promote high-quality instruction and a positive classroom climate6.
Finally, it was found that teachers’ attitude (but not professional qualifications) is more strongly correlated with preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy in the public schools than in the private school. The findings suggest that in public schools, where resource limitations and diverse student populations may be more prominent, the role of teachers becomes crucial. Positive teacher’s attitudes, such as fostering strong teacher-student relationships and creating a conducive classroom climate, can significantly improve student engagement and achievement8. In contrast, private schools may have additional resources and a more homogeneous student body, which can mitigate the influence of teacher’s attitudes and qualifications. In a related study in Nigeria, the researchers examined the impact of teacher quality on students' academic performance in public primary schools9. The findings indicated that teacher qualifications and attitudes significantly influenced students' achievements, particularly in public schools with resource challenges. This study supports the idea that teachers play a more critical role in public schools due to resource limitations, aligning with the finding in the current study. In another relevant study carried out in Ghana, the relationship between teacher quality and student outcomes in public and private primary schools was investigated10. The results revealed that in public schools, teacher characteristics, including qualifications and attitudes, were more strongly associated with students' academic success than in private schools. This local study from Africa provides additional evidence supporting the notion that teacher-related factors have a greater impact in resource-constrained educational settings.

Endnotes

1.	E. Sapir: Language: An Introduction to the Study of Speech. San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace & Company, 2023, 1 – 11.

2.	D. B. Asamoah, B. Sundeme, E.A. Quainoo and D. Adom-Fynm. School-environment, Teacher-related and Student-related Factors: Critical Causes of Low Academic Performance of Senior High School Students in Core Mathematics in the Kumasi Metropolis of Ghana. Journal of Educational and Psychological Research. Vol. 2(1), 2020, 3 – 15. ISSN: 2690 – 0726.

3.	E. I. Obilov, Teacher Factors Influencing Students’ Academic Performance in Public Secondary Schools in Rivers State. International Academy Journal of Educational Technology and Research. Vol. 7(2), 2019.  28 - 41.
 
4.	S. A. Yakubu, Teachers’ Academic Qualification as a Correlate of Students’ Academic Achievement in Fine and Applied Arts at the Colleges of Education in Northeast Nigeria, International Journal of Innovative Education Research, 11(1), 2023, 11 – 24.

5.	L. Muhammad, The Effects of Teachers’ Academic Qualification and Experience on Students’ Achievement and Interest in Accounting in Kaduna State. Global Journal of Education, Humanities & Management Sciences (GOJEIMS): 3(1), 2021, 242 – 252: ISSN (Print) 2705 – 2494; ISSN (Online): 2705 – 2486.    

6.	K. N. Tang, Challenges and Importance of Teaching English Language as a Medium of Instruction in Thailand International College. Institute of Research and Development in Teaching Profession for ASEAN. Vol. 15(2), 2020, 97 – 118.

7.	A. Adebileye & A. Akinola: Teaching and Learning English Language as a Second Language in Nigeria: Examining Evolving Approaches and Methods. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. Vol. 10(9), 2020, 1015-1024. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1009.02

8.	R. A. Olatoye & O. A. Olatoye, Classroom Climate as a Correlate of Academic Performance of Pupils in Mathematics and English Language in Oyo State, Nigeria. European Journal of Education Studies, 7(8), 2020, 18-29.

9.	A. Adebileye & A. Akinola: Teaching and Learning English Language as a Second Language in Nigeria: Examining Evolving Approaches and Methods. Theory and Practice in Language Studies. Vol. 10(9), 2020, 1015-1024. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.17507/tpls.1009.02

10.	S. A. Akintunde & O. S. Ogunsanmi, Teacher Quality and Students' Academic Performance in Public Primary Schools in Nigeria. International Journal of Educational Planning and Administration, 2(2), 2018, 73-82.

11.	K. O. Asare & E. K. Yidanu, Teacher Quality and Student Academic Performance in Public and Private Primary Schools in Ghana. African Educational Research Journal, 4(3), 2016, 150-159.

Chapter Five
Conclusion
5.1	Summary of Findings 
		The findings showed the number of instruments (Teacher’s attitude questionnaire and achievement tests) that were distributed, returned and validated for use in the study. One of the questionnaires was self-constructed tagged: “Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications Questionnaire (TAPQQ)”. For this particular questionnaire, a total of fifty (50) was distributed among preschool teachers across public and private schools in Ibadan North, Local Government Area (LGA) and forty-eight were retrieved and all forty-eight were valid and were therefore used for the study. This has a response rate of 96.0% which falls within an excellent response rate for the questionnaire.
On the other hand, a total of four hundred (400) questionnaire copies were produced each, for the Literacy and Numeracy Academic Achievement Test (LNAT), but three hundred and ninety-one (391) copies were retrieved. The three hundred and ninety-one copies retrieved were valid and were used for the study. The LNAT has a response rate of 97.8% which was an excellent response rate for the study. 
A total of 32 TAPQQ questionnaires were distributed to pre-school teachers in private schools. Impressively, 30 out of the 32 distributed questionnaires were retrieved, and all 30 retrieved copies were considered valid for the study. This resulted in a response rate of 93.8%. For the LNAT, 123 questionnaire copies were distributed to students in private schools, and 118 copies were successfully retrieved. All 118 of these retrieved copies were deemed valid for the study. The LNAT achieved an exceptional response rate of 95.9%.
Among preschool public school teachers, 18 TAPQQ questionnaires were distributed, and all 18 questionnaires were retrieved. All the 30 retrieved questionnaire from the private preschools were considered valid for the study. This resulted in a response rate of 100%. The high response rate of 93.8% indicated a commendable level of engagement and cooperation from the preschool teachers. In the case of the LNAT, 277 questionnaire copies were distributed to students in private schools. A substantial number of 273 were successfully retrieved, and all the questionnaires were deemed valid for the study. The LNAT achieved an exceptional response rate of 98.6%.
The result showed the academic performance of pupils in English and Numeracy, categorized by different performance levels and school types (Private Preschool and Public Preschool).    Among the respondents (pupils) assessed in English, there was a noteworthy disparity in their performance. Among the respondents who scored <40, a more significant proportion, 38.8% were public Schools’ pupils; with only (1.7%) from Private Preschools. A slightly higher representation from Public Preschools (7.7%) of the respondents (pupils) scored between 40 and 49, compared to Private Preschools (0.8%). Also, of the respondents (pupils) who scored between 50 and 59, and a majority 11.7% were from public Preschool (11.7%) compared to private schools (2.5%). Most pupil scored 70 or higher in English. This high-performance group is dominated mainly by Private Preschool pupils (89.8%), with only 31.9% from Public preschools. The results indicated a significant association between school type and student performance in English. Private Preschool pupils consistently outperform their Public Preschool counterparts across all performance categories. 
More than half of the respondents (teachers) 64.6% cultivated a poor classroom climate, whereas a significant proportion 35.4% lagged in this regard (P<0.05). The overall attitude score indicated a predominantly poor disposition 75.0%, with a notable minority (25.0%) reflecting a good attitude. Overall, when the mean scores of the attitude domains were ranked across schools, the mean score for teacher-student relationship in the private school (37.3) ranked first among teachers’ attitude across schools. This indicates that teacher-student relationship in the public school is better overall when compared with the other attitude domains (like instructional material and classroom climate), across school.
The level of professional qualification of the teachers is presented in table 4.5 above, about 20 (41.7%) of the teachers had NCE, 21 (43.8%) had B.A/B.ED/B.Sc, and 2 (4.4) of the teachers had M.Ed/M.A and Ph.D. Most NCE holders 61.1% were from public preschools and most of the B.A/B.ED/B.Sc holders 50.0% were from private preschools. In the combined sampled respondents, teachers with 21 years and above of teaching experience constituted a significant majority 35.4%; while only 18.8% had 5 years or less. A significant proportion (26.7%) of the respondents (teachers) with 5 years or less experience were from private preschools; while only 5.6% were from private preschools. Similarly, teachers with 6-10 years of experience were more 16.7% in private preschools compared to public preschools (5.6) (P<0.001). However, most public preschool teachers (77.8%) had experience of 21 years and above; while only 10.0% of the private preschool teachers had years of experience. Meanwhile, 38(79.2%) of the teachers in both public and private preschools had engaged in continual professional development (National Teachers Registration Council programme) of which 83.3% were from private schools and 72.2% were from public schools (P>0.05).
The findings further showed the joint prediction of teachers’ attitude to teaching and professional qualifications on preschoolers’ academic achievements in Literacy and Numeracy. In the regression model 1 (the model for the combined sample) for Literacy, the beta coefficient for teachers’ attitude was B = 1.89 with a p-value <0.001 indicating that the joint prediction of teachers’ attitude was significant at p<0.01; while the beta coefficient for Professional qualification was B = -0.74 with a p-value=0.22 which indicated that the joint prediction of professional qualification was not significant at P<0.01. The R-square of 0.20 indicated that the model for the joint prediction of these two variables (teachers’ attitude and professional qualification) explained 20.0% of the variations in the preschoolers’ academic achievements in Literacy. 
Further, the findings showed relative prediction that the beta coefficient for teacher-student relationship was B = -0.57 (95.0% CI: -1.43 to 0.29) with a p-value =0.19 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05); beta coefficient for instructional methods was B = 21.42 (95.0% CI: 0.14 to 2.69) with a p-value =0.03 (significant relative prediction at p<0.05); beta coefficient for classroom climate was B = 4.60 (95.0% CI: 3.33 to 5.86) with a p-value <0.001 (significant relative prediction at p<0.01); while beta coefficient for professional qualifications was B = -0.30 (95.0% CI: -0.81 to 1.40) with a p-value =0.60 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05). The R-square value of 0.20 indicated that the relative prediction of these variables was able to explain 20.0% of the variation in the academic achievements in Numeracy among the preschoolers in Ibadan North LGA of Oyo state.
In the regression model 2 (for the relative prediction of the variables on Literacy in Private preschools) the beta coefficient for teachers-student relationship was B = 0.13 (95.0% CI: -0.75 to 1.01) with a p-value =0.77 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05); beta coefficient for instructional methods was B = -0.45 (95.0% CI: -1.54 to 0.64) with a p-value =0.42 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05); beta coefficient for classroom climate was B = 1.01 (95.0% CI: -0.56 to 2.58) with a p-value =0.21 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05); while beta coefficient for professional qualifications was B = -0.36 (95.0% CI: -1.41 to 0.68) with a p-value =0.49 (not significant relative prediction at p<0.05). The R-square value of 0.02 indicated that the relative prediction of these variables was able to explain 2.0% of the variation in the academic achievements in Literacy among the preschoolers in the private schools in Ibadan North LGA of Oyo state. 

5.2	Conclusion
Preschoolers’ academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy was generally better in private schools compared to public schools in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo State. Teacher attitudes (teacher-student relationship, instructional methods and Classroom climate) in Literacy and Numeracy is generally poor despite the important role it plays in shaping the learning environment. Nurturing positive teacher attitudes, particularly in domains related to teacher-student relationships, instructional methods, and classroom climate, is critical for fostering student engagement and academic success. 
The professional qualifications (Educational qualification that is, level of education; years of experience and continuing professional development) of preschool teachers for Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government was generally good but better in the private schools than public schools; private school teachers possess more relevant qualifications compared to teachers in the public school.
There was a substantial joint predictions of teacher attitudes and professional qualifications to preschoolers' academic achievements in Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government. The relative contributions of teachers’ attitudes and professional qualifications on Literacy and Numeracy in Ibadan North Local Government varied across school types but shows the unique needs and challenges facing both private and public schools in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo state. 
Teachers’ attitudes (teacher-student relationship, instructional methods and classroom climate) and professional qualifications (Educational qualification that is, level of education; years of experience and continuing professional development) were more strongly correlated with preschoolers' academic achievements in public schools compared to private schools. 

5.3	Recommendations 
Based on the finding of this study, the following recommendations were made:
i.	There is need to address the issue of disparities between private and public schools. To address the academic disparities between private and public schools, it is recommended that local educational authorities implement policies aimed at equalizing access to resources and educational opportunities. These policies should focus on increasing funding, providing better infrastructure, and enhancing the quality of teaching and learning materials in public schools to ensure that every child in Ibadan North, Oyo State, has an equitable chance at academic success.
ii.	There is need to nurturing positive teacher attitudes. To improve teacher attitudes, particularly in domains related to teacher-student relationships, instructional methods, and classroom climate, it is recommended that teachers’ training and professional development programmes that incorporate modules that would focus on building positive attitudes and effective classroom management strategies. These programmes should be designed to empower teachers with the skills and knowledge necessary to create a conducive and engaging learning environment for preschoolers.
iii.	There is need to enhancing teacher professional qualifications. To elevate teacher professional qualifications, especially in public schools, it is recommended that educational authorities should invest in teacher training and ongoing professional development. Teachers in both public and private schools should be encouraged and supported to pursue higher levels of education and acquire specialized training in early childhood education, ensuring that they are well-prepared to meet the diverse needs of preschoolers.
iv.	Considering the variable predictions of teachers’ attitudes and professional qualifications across school types, it is recommended that educational policies and interventions be customized to meet the unique requirements of both private and public schools. These tailored strategies should aim to optimize the impact of teacher-related factors in each context, focusing on the specific challenges and opportunities presented by different school settings.
v.	There should be a holistic approach to teacher’s development where initiatives encompass both teacher attitudes and professional qualifications. This integrated approach will help prepare educators to provide high-quality instruction and nurture positive learning environments, which will help in enhancing the overall educational experience for preschoolers in Ibadan North, Oyo State.
vi.	To address the differential correlations between teacher factors and student outcomes in public and private schools, it is recommended that educational strategies be adapted to the specific context of Ibadan North. Policymakers should design interventions that account for the stronger correlations observed in public schools, ensuring that all students benefit from effective teaching practices and supportive teacher’s attitudes. 
vii.	Additionally, collaboration between public and private schools can facilitate the exchange of best practices to improve the overall quality of early childhood education in the region.

5.4	Contribution to Knowledge 
This study makes a significant contribution to the field of early childhood education and educational policy by shedding light on the intricate interplay between teacher-related factors and preschoolers' academic achievement. The finding that preschoolers in private schools outperform their peers in public schools in Ibadan North, Oyo State, underlines the critical need for a more equitable and resourceful public education system. It highlights the pressing demand for policies and interventions aimed at reducing academic disparities and ensuring that all children, regardless of school type, have equal access to quality education. This study thus contributes to the ongoing discourse on educational equity, providing empirical evidence that can inform decision-makers and policymakers in their efforts to improve early childhood education.
Moreover, the research also underscores the significance of teacher attitudes and professional qualifications in shaping the educational sector. By revealing generally the poor teachers’ attitudes in both public and private schools, it highlights the need for comprehensive teacher development programmes that nurture positive attitudes, effective instructional methods, and conducive classroom climates. 
Additionally, the observation of disparities in teacher qualifications between school types emphasizes the role of teacher expertise in student outcomes and calls for targeted professional development initiatives, especially in public schools. This study enriches the understanding of how teacher-related factors influence preschoolers' academic success, providing valuable insights for designing evidence-based interventions that enhance early childhood education in the local context of Ibadan North, Oyo State, and generalising it to the entire country, while also contributing to the broader discourse on effective education policies in Africa.

5.5	Suggested Areas for Further Studies
The following areas for further research can help build upon the current study's findings and provide valuable insights into how to enhance early childhood education in the region and beyond:
1.	Exploring Interventions for Public School Improvement: Investigate specific interventions, programmes, and policies that can be implemented in public schools to bridge the academic performance gap between public and private schools in the context of Ibadan North, Oyo State. This research could examine the effectiveness of initiatives like increased funding, improved infrastructure, and teacher training on student outcomes.
2.	Teachers’ Attitude Interventions: Conduct research on the design and impact of teacher’s attitude interventions, focusing on improving teacher-student relationships, instructional methods, and classroom climate. Evaluate the effectiveness of professional development programs and interventions that aim to foster more positive teacher attitudes in preschool settings.
3.	Professional Qualification and Teachers’ Development: Further explore the impact of teacher qualifications on preschoolers' academic achievement and investigate the specific types of professional development programs that are most effective in enhancing teacher expertise, especially in the public school system.
4.	Comparative Educational Systems: Extend the comparative analysis to other regions in Nigeria or other African countries to gain a broader perspective on the impact of private and public school systems on early childhood education. Examine how educational disparities manifest in different contexts and the factors that contribute to these disparities. 
5.	Longitudinal Studies: Conduct longitudinal studies to track the progress of preschoolers over time to better understand the long-term effects of teachers’ attitudes and qualifications on academic achievement. Investigate whether early childhood educational experiences have lasting impacts on students' educational trajectories.
6.	Parental and Community Involvement: Research the role of parental and community involvement in preschoolers' academic achievement, considering how these factors interact with teacher-related influences. Explore strategies to enhance parental engagement and community support in early childhood education.
7.	Cultural and Socioeconomic Factors: Examine the influence of cultural and socioeconomic factors on preschoolers' academic achievement. Investigate how cultural norms and economic conditions shape educational experiences and outcomes in the context of Ibadan North, Oyo State.
8.	Policy Analysis: Analyze the effectiveness of existing educational policies in Nigeria, with a particular focus on early childhood education. Assess the impact of policy changes and reforms on student outcomes and the overall quality of preschool education.

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Appendix A
Department of Arts and Social Science Education,
Faculty of Education,
Lead City University,
Ibadan, Oyo State

Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications Questionnaire (TAPQQ)
Dear Respondents,
	I am a Postgraduate student of the Department of Arts and Social Science Education, Faculty of Education, Lead City University, Ibadan. I am writing a thesis on “Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications as Predictors of Academic Achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among Preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo State”. This questionnaire is designed to elicit information from you as a teacher in preschool. I solicits your support by providing answers to this questionnaire items. The information will be treated with utmost confidentiality.

Thank you.

Yours,
Evelyn Aisha AKPA

Section A: Demographic Information
Instruction: Kindly tick (√) your answers to the following question items as appropriate:
1.	Sex: (a) Male (  ) (b) Female (  )
2.	Age:	(a) 25 Years and Below (  ) (b) 26 - 30 (  ) (c) 31 - 35 (  ) (d) 36 - 40 (  ) 
(e) 41 Years and Above (  )
3.	Professional Qualification: (a) NCE (  ) (b) B. A/B.Ed/B.Sc (  ) (c) M.Ed (  ) 
(d) M.A ( ) 	(e) Ph.D (  )
4.	Years of Teaching Experience: (a) 5 Years and Below (   )	(b) 6 - 10 (   )	
(c) 11 - 15 (   )	  (d) 16 - 20 (   ) (e) 21 Years and above (   )
5.	No. of Pupils per Class: (a) 25 and Below (  ) (b) 26 - 30 (  ) (c) 31 - 35 (   ) 
(d) 36 - 40 (   )	   (e) 41 and above (   )

Section B: Teachers’ Attitude 
Instruction: Kindly tick (√) your answers to the following question items as appropriate.
Key: Strongly Agree (SA) = 4; Agree (A) = 3; Strongly Disagree (SD) = 2; Disagree (D) = 1
S/N	Items 	SA	A	D	SD	
1 	I feel Pride in belonging to teaching profession. 					
2 	I prefer teaching profession to other professions. 					
3 	l try my best to satisfy my students 					
4 	I love teaching profession 					
5 	Teaching is the best means of self-expression 					
6 	I am sure that teaching is a source of pleasure for me 					
7 	I am capable of teaching in any type of classroom environment 					
8 	A respectable status can be enjoyed in teaching profession 					
9 	Teaching is a respectful profession 					
10 	I do not accept to teach dull minded students 					
11 	I accept to teach poor students 					
12 	I plan teaching according to my interest 					
13 	My choice of profession is only teaching 					
14 	I create learning environment of interest to my pupils 					
15 	I give extra time for my profession 					
16 	I prefer students’ needs on my personal needs 					
17 	Dealing with pupils help teachers to remain enthusiastic 					
18 	l give them extra time according to the students need					
19 	I believe in students’ welfare 					
20 	Teaching profession is an ambition of my life 					
21 	I give equal attention to all the students 					
22 	I abide by the rules of teaching profession 					
23 	I allow students to ask questions in the class 					
24 	I give equal attention to each student’s questions 					
25 	I enjoy friendly relation with students 					
26 	I give equal amount of help to each student 					
27 	Rules and regulations will promote my standards in my profession 					
28 	I follow policies of school management 					
29 	I cooperate with my fellow teachers 					
30 	I always spare myself to help students 					
31	I have vast knowledge of teaching methods					
32	I display positive emotions in the class					
33	I have a good feeling about my teaching job					
34	I avoid classroom interactions with the students					
35	Teaching pupils in preschool wearies me					
36	Teaching pupils in preschool makes me upset					
37	I respond clearly to questions asked in class					
38	I am able to relate content of subject to real-life situations and issues					
39	I provide relevant and useful examples related to Literacy and Numeracy content					
40	I provide extensive, interesting facts on the content of Literacy and Numeracy to encourage learning					
41	I provide factual and accurate information on the content of Literacy and Numeracy					

Section C: Teachers’ Professional Qualifications
Instruction: Kindly fill or tick (√) your answers to the following question items as appropriate:
I. Which of the qualifications listed in the table below do you possess? (Please, endorse all qualifications as appropriate that you have completed) 
S/N	Statement	Tick Here	Duration of study (in years, if applicable)	
1 	First (Primary) School Leaving Certificate (FSLC)			
2 	Senior School Certificate Education (SSCE/GCE/WAEC/NECO)			
3 	National Business and Technical Examinations Board (NABTEB)			
4 	National Certificate Education (NCE)			
5 	Bachelours of Education (B.Ed)			
6 	Masters of Education (M.Ed)			
7 	National Teachers’ Registration Council			
8	If you have a degree in Education, what is your Teaching Subject?	
______________________

II. What other professional development have you obtained in the recent time (between the last 2 years? If any please mention here _____________________________________ 
________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

III. Instruction: Kindly fill or tick (√) your answers to the following question items as appropriate.
Key: Strongly Agree (SA) = 4; Agree (A) = 3; Strongly Disagree (SD) = 2; Disagree (D) = 1
S/N	Items 	SA	A	D	SD	
1	I have been teaching Literacy and Numeracy for several years at preschool 					
2	I can manage unruly students with ease for effective teaching in the classroom					
3	I use teaching strategies that has worked over the years that enhances students’ understanding of Literacy and Numeracy					
4	I have thorough understanding of Literacy and Numeracy subject by virtue of the number of years I have been working					
5	I have the academic degree/certificate in early childhood education					
6	I use instructional materials/resources appropriately to facilitate learning in Literacy and Numeracy					
7	I am not a novice in the area of teaching Literacy and Numeracy					
8	I am able to provide pupils with new trends and updates on Literacy and Numeracy subject					
9	I attend to questions correctly when asked in Literacy and Numeracy class					
10	I am well-equipped to provide additional information in Literacy and Numeracy to pupils when required					

Appendix B
Literacy Academic Achievement Test (LNAT)
Section A: Bio-data
1.	Sex:	Male (   ),    Female (   )  	
2.	School: _____________________________________________

Section B: Achievement Test in Literacy
Instruction: Answer ALL the questions  
1. Match the names of the male to the names of the female counterparts in the following table.

Father	Sister	
Grandfather	Girl	
Brother	Grandmother	
Boy	Mother	

2. Underline the Action word (verb) in each of the following sentences

i.	Ade sells at the market
ii.	The dog runs very fast
iii.	Tolu dances well

3. Underline the vowel letters in the following works

	Can		Cow		Red		What

4. Write any four-letter words in the following spaces

i. ____________________	ii. ____________________	iii. ____________________

5. Read the following passage and answer the questions that follows:

Jumoke is in Nursery One Blue. Her class is big. There are boys and girls in her class. There are ten boys and five girls in the class. Her class teacher is Mrs. Akinjide. Jumoke likes her class because it is neat and the children are calm.

Questions
i.	What class is Jumoke? _______________________________________________
ii.	Is her class big or small?______________________________________________
iii.	Is the teacher a male or female?  _______________________________________
iv.	Why does Jumoke likes her class? ______________________________________

6. Obtain the overall average performance of the pupil in Literacy (for Nursery 2) from records

Section C: Achievement Test in Numeracy
Instruction: Answer ALL the questions  
1.	Solve the following Numeracy	 

i. 6 + 2 =			ii. 5 + 4 = 		iii. 8 – 3 =	

2. Write the nest 3 numbers in the following 	1, 3, 5, 7, ____, ____, ____.

3. Write the following in the correct counting order: 

Two		Five		One		Three		Four
____		____		____		____		____	

4. Solve the Numeracy	i. ½ of 8 = 		ii. ¼ of 20 = 

5. Solve the Numeracy	i. 	       + 7 = 10		ii. 8 -                = 2

6. Solve the following 	i. 	  T	U		ii. 	 T	U
					  5	4			 6	 3
					+2	1			-2	 2
					________			_________
					________			_________

6. Obtain the overall average performance of the pupil in Numeracy from records

Appendix C

Department of Arts and Social Science Education,
Faculty of Education,
Lead City University,
Ibadan, Oyo State
Researchers’ Phone Number: 09041588199
September 21, 2023

Request for Parental Consent to Participate in Research Study

Dear Parent,

I a researcher at Department of Arts and Social Science Education, Faculty of Education,
Lead City University, Ibadan, Oyo State. I am conducting a study titled “Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications as Predictors of Academic Achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among Preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo State” and I would like to invite your child, who is five years old, to participate.

The purpose of this study is to predict teachers’ attitude generally in terms of teacher-student relationship, instructional methods and Classroom climate while teaching and how it affects Academic Achievement in Literacy and Numeracy. Also, to determine Professional Qualifications of the preschool teachers on the Academic Achievement in Literacy and Numeracy. Note, your child will be given questions in Numeracy and Literacy to answer. I believe that your child's involvement can greatly contribute to the understanding and improvement of teachers’ attitude and professional qualifications as predictors of academic achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among Preschoolers.

Please note that participation is entirely voluntary, and you have the right to withdraw your child from the study at any time without consequences or prejudice. We assure you that your child's privacy and confidentiality will be strictly maintained, and all the data collected will be anonymised and used solely for research purposes.

If you decide to grant consent for your child's participation, we kindly request that you sign and return the enclosed consent form as soon as possible. Should you have any questions or concerns about the study, please do not hesitate to contact me on this Phone Number: 09041588199.

Thank you for considering this invitation. I greatly appreciate your support and contribution to this research endeavour.

Warm regards,

Evelyn Aisha AKPA.

Appendix D

Informed Consent Statement

I, ______________________________, give permission for my child, ________________________________, to participate in the research project entitled, “Teachers’ Attitude and Professional Qualifications as Predictors of Academic Achievement in Literacy and Numeracy among Preschoolers in Ibadan North Local Government, Oyo State”. The study has been explained to me and questions answered to my satisfactions. I understand that my child’s righto withdraw from participating or refuse to participate will be respected and that his/her responses and identity will be kept confidential. I give this consent voluntarily.

Parent/Guidance Signature: 
_______________________ 						_________________
	Signature								Date

Researcher’s Signature:

_______________________						_________________
Signature								Date

Bio-data

Personal Data
Name:								Evelyn Aisha AKPA	
Date of Birth:							15th April, 1982
State of Origin:						Benue
Nationality:			   				Nigerian
Sex:								Female			   
Marital Status:						Married		   
Religion: 							Christianity
Telephone (Mobile): 						080 628 150 65
Email: 							onojamatthew@yahoo.co.uk 
Contact Address: 						C/O Dr. Onoja Matthew Akpa,
Department of Epidemiology and Medical statistics,
Faculty of public health, College of Medicine,
University of Ibadan,
Oyo State, Nigeria. 

Next of Kin:			   				Dr. Matthew Onoja Akpa
Address of Next of Kin:					As Above	   

Educational Institutions Attended with Date
•	Lead City University, Ibadan					2022 - Date
•	Ekiti state University, Ado-Ekiti				2011 - 2017
•	College of Education Oju, Benue State				2001 - 2004 
•	ABU Management Institute of Secretarial 
and computer Education Okpokwu 				1995 - 2000
•	Saint Bernard’s Primary School Ugwu				1989 - 1994 
	 
Academic Qualifications, Grades and Dates
•	Master of Education (M.Ed)					In view
•	Bachelour of Education (B.Ed)					2017
•	Nigerian certificate of Education (NCE)				2004
•	National Business and Technical Certificate 
Examination Board (NABTEB)					2000
•	Certificate of Primary Education					1994

Work Experience: 		                                                        
•	Christ’s Chapel Foundation School, UCH Ibadan		2016 - Date
•	Africa Missions, RCCG, Redemption City, Ogun State		2009 - 2011
•	Nazareth Nursery and Primary School, Barnawa, Kaduna	2006 - 2009
•	Jupavi Secondary School, Kaduna				2004 - 2006
•	Oturkpo Local Govt. Secretariat (Industrial Training)		2003		

Hobbies:	
•	Stylist
•	Singing
•	Reading
•	Running and Games

Referees
1.	Prof. Folashade Omokhodion,
Department of Community Medicine,
Faculty of public Health,
College of Medicine,
University of Ibadan,
Oyo state
 
2.	Prof. Rufus Akinyemi,
Institute of Advance Medical Research and Training (IAMRAT)
College of Medicine,
University of Ibadan,
Oyo state

3.	Dr. Onoja Matthew Akpa,
Department of Epidemiology and Medical Statistics,
Faculty of Public Health,
College of Medicine,
University of Ibadan,
Oyo state

Signature: ___________________________	Date: ___________________ 

University Compliance Certification
This is to certify that this thesis by Evelyn Aisha AKPA in the Department of Arts and Social Science Education, Faculty of Education, Lead City University, Ibadan, Oyo State, is in full compliance with the approved University format and style.

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